23 20 5655 https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/d41fd2aae6717afc90fff4773089d422.pdf 4903c3ec6f760287a6efe9e69f4d7b6d PDF Text Text . . ' St. John's College Charter and Polity of The College . . , • • · Annapolis, Maryland Santa Fe, New Mexico Amended and Restated as of November, 1999 FOUNDED AS KING WILLIAM'S SCHOOL, 1696 CHARTERED AS ST. JOHN'SCoLLEGE, 1784 ��Since this Polity can be amended between printings, the current official Polity is kept in the offices of the Presidents of St. John 's College. HISTORY St. John's College was founded in 1696 as King William's School in accordance with a Petitionary Act for free-schools of the General Assembly of the Colony of Maryland. Following the Revolutionary War, the General Assembly of the new State of Maryland granted a Charter to St. John's College pursuant to and as a part of Chapter 37 of the Laws of Maryland of 1784. This Charter was subsequently amended by the General Assembly through Resolution No. 41 of 1832. The Visitors and Governors of St. John' s College in 1950 revised the Charter to eliminate extraneous and obsolete matter and to make certain other amendments consistent with present requirements and conditions. It was the opinion of the Attorney General of Maryland that the original Charter of the College was subject to the general Corporation Laws of Maryland and might accordingly be amended by the Visitors and Governors, pursuant to these laws, without legislative action by the General Assembly. Subsequent amendments were made in 1961, in 1963, in 1965, in 1970, and in 1975. When the decision was reached to establish a second St. John' s College in Santa Fe, New Mexico, amendments were made to the Charter to authorize branches or extensions of the College. The Charter was then filed with the Corporations Commission of the State of New Mexico as a foreign corporation. The College was thus empowered to grant degrees in New Mexico under the provisions of its Maryland Charter. A Polity for the College was first suggested at a faculty meeting in 1943 by the Dean. A faculty committee was elected and drafted a Polity which was then promulgated by the President. In April 1949 the Faculty elected a committee to revise the Polity. The resulting document was approved by the Faculty on April 9, 1950, and was adopted by the Board of Visitors and Governors on July 8, 1950. Subsequent quinquennial reviews were made by elected faculty committees, and desired amendments were recommended by the Faculty to the Board of Visitors and Governors. The Polity was thus amended at regular meetings of the Board held on May 14, 1955; May 21, 1960; May 15, 1965; June 6, 1970; April 19, 1975; January 16, 1982; April 19, 1986; and October 19, 1991. Other amendments were adopted by the Board at regular meetings on February 22 and December 9, 1961; February 23 and September 28, 1963; October 3, 1970; February 18, 1972; October 25, 1975; January 24, 1976; November 6, 1982; July 21 , 1984; April 20, 1985; October 25, 1986; April 11, 1987; October 19, 1991; July 18, 1992, April 17, 1993, April 22, 1995, April 19, 1996, April 24, 1999, and November 6, 1999. page I �CHARTER OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE WHEREAS, institutions for the liberal education of youth in the principles of virtue, knowledge and useful literature are of the highest benefit to society, in order to train up and perpetuate succession a of able and honest men for discharging the various offices and duties of life, both civil and religious, wtth usefulness and reputation, and such institutions of learning have accordingly been promoted and encouraged by the wise stand best regulated States; And whereas, it appears to this General Assembly that manypubhc spmted individuals, from an earnest desire to promote the founding a college or semmary oflearrung on theWestern Shore of this State have subscribed and procured subscriptions to a considerable amount, and there 1s reason to beheve that very large additions will be obtained to the same throughout the different counties of the said Shore, if they were made capable in law to receive and apply the same towards founding and carrying on college or general seminary of learning with such salutary plan and with such legislative assistance and direction as the General Assembly might think fit, and this General Assembly, highly approving those generous exertions of individuals are desirous to embrace the present favorable occasion of peace and prospenty for making lasting provision for the encouragement and advancement of all useful knowledge and literature through every part of this State; BE IT ENACTED: II. That a college or general seminary oflearning by the name of"St. John's College" be established on the said Western Shore upon the following fundamental and inviolable principles; namely, first, the said college shall be founded and maintained forever upon a most liberal plan for the benefit of youth of every religious denomination who shall be freely admitted to equal privileges and advantages of education and to all the literary honors of the college, according to their merit without requiring or enforcing any religious or civil test, or urging their attendance upon any particular religious worship or service other than what they have been educated in or have the consent and approbation of their parents or guardians to attend; nor shall any preference be given in the choice of a Principal, Vice-Principal or other Professor, Master or Tutor in said college on account of his particular religious profession, having regard solely to his moral character and literary abilities and other necessary qualifications to fill the place for which he shall be chosen. IV. That the governing body or board of said College shall consist of not more than forty-nine nor less than thirteen Visitors and Governors, to be chosen and to hold office in such manner as the said Visitors and Governors may determine and prescribe by their fundamental ordinances; provided, however, that the Governors of the States of Maryland and New Mexico shall act ex officio as two of the total number of V1s1tors and Governors of said college during their respective terms in said offices; and that the said Visitors and Governors and their successors duly chosen shall be and are hereby declared to be one community, corporation and body politic to have continuance forever by the name of ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE and by the same name they shall have perpetual succession. VII. That if the City of Annapolis should be fixed upon as a proper place for establishing the said intended college, this General Assembly give and grant, and upon that condition do hereby give and grant to the Visitors and Governors of the said College by the name of "The Visitors and Governors of Saint John's College in the State of Maryland," and their successors all that four acres within the City of Annapolis purchased for the use by the public and conveyed on the 2nd day of October, 1744, by Stephen Bordley, Esq., to Thos. Bladen, Esq., then Governor, to have and to hold the said four acres of land with the appurtenances to the said Visitors and Governors and their successors for the only use, benefit and behoof of the said college and seminary of universal learning forever. enfeoffinent, release, confirmation, or devise of any person or persons, bodies politic or corporate capable to make the same, and such lands, tenements, rents, annuities, pensions or other hereditaments or any less estates, rights or interests of or in the same at their pleasure to grant, alien, sell and transfer in such manner and form as they shall think meet and convenient for the furtherance of the said college; And also that they may take and receive any sum or sums of money, and any kind, manner or portion of goods and chattels that shall be given, sold or bequeathed to them by any person or persons, bodies politic or corporate capable to make a gift, sale or bequest thereof and employ the same towards erecting, setting up and maintaining the said college in such manner as they shall judge most necessary and convenient for the instruction, improvement and education of youth in the vernacular and learned languages, and generally in any kind of literature, arts and sciences, which they shall think proper to be taught for training up good, useful and accomplished men for the service of their country, in church and state. IX. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors by the name aforesaid shall be able in law to sue and be sued, plead and be impleadable in any court or courts, before any judge, judges, or justices within this State and elsewhere in all and all manner of suits, complaints, pleas, causes, matters and demands of whatsoever kind, nature or form they be and all and every other matter and thing therein to do in as full and effectual a manner as any other person or persons, bodies politic or corporate within this State or any of the United States of America in like cases may or can do. X. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors shall have full power and authority to have, make and use one common and public seal and likewise one privy seal with such devices and inscriptions as they shall think proper, and to ascertain, fix and regulate the uses of both seals, by their own laws and the same seals or either of them to change, break, alter and renew at their pleasure. XI. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors from time to time and at all times hereafter, forever, shall have full power and authority to constitute and appoint in such manner as they shall think best and most convenient, a principal, a vice-principal of the said college and professors with proper tutors and assistants for instructing the students and scholars of the said seminary in all the liberal arts and sciences, and in the ancient and modem tongues and languages; and the said principal, vice-principal and professors so constituted and appointed from time to time shall be known and distinguished forever as one learned body or faculty by the name of"The Principal, Vice-Principal and Professors of St. John's College"; and by that name shall be capable of exercising such powers and authorities as the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors shall by their ordinances think necessary to delegate to them for the instruction, discipline and government of the said seminary and of all the students, scholars, ministers and servants belonging to the same. XIV. That a majority of the said Visitors and Governors for the time being and duly assembled at any meeting upon due notice given to the whole body of Visitors and Governors shall have full power and authority to make fundamental ordinances for the government of the said college and the instruction of youth as aforesaid, and by these ordinances to appoint such a number of their own body not less than >seven, as they may think proper for transacting all general and necessary business of the said seminary and making temporary rules for the government of the same; and also by the said fundamental ordinances to delegate to the principal, viceprincipal and professors such powers and authorities as they may think best for the standing government of the said seminary and of the executiqn of the ordinances and rules of the same; provided always that they be not repugnant to the form of government of any law of this State. VIII. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors by the same name shall be able and capable in law to purchase, have and enjoy to them and their successors in fee, or for any other less estate or estates, any lands, tenements, rents, annuities, pensions or other hereditaments by the gift, grant, bargain, sale, alienation, XV. And for animating and encouraging the students of said college to a laudable diligence, industry and progress in useful literature and science, be it enacted that the said Visitors and Governors and their successors shall by a written mandate under their privy seal and the hand of someone of the Visitors and Governors to be chosen annually as their President, according to the ordinance to be made for that purpose, have full power and authority to direct the principal, vice-principal and professors to hold public commencements either on stated annual days, or occasionally as the future ordinances of the said seminary may direct and at such commencements to admit any of the students in the said college or any other persons meriting the same (whose names shall be severally inserted in the same mandate) to any degree or degrees in any of the faculties, page 2 page3 �arts and sciences and liberal professions to which persons are usually admitted in other colleges or .universities in America or Europe; And it is hereby enacted that the principal, or in the case of his death or absence, the vice-principal, and in case of the death or absence of both, the senior professor who may be present, shall make out and sign with his name diplomas or certificates of the admission such to degree or degrees, which shall be sealed with the public or greaters ealof the said corporation or college and dehvered to the graduates as honorable and perpetual testimomals of such admission, which diplomas, if thought necessary for doing greater honor to such graduates, shall also be signed with the names of the different professors or as many of them as can conveniently sign the same; provided always that no sutdent or students wi thin the said college shall ever be admitted to any such degree or degrees, or have their name mserted in any mandate for a degree, until such student or students have been first duly examined, and thought worthy of the same. XVI. That the ordinances which shall be from time to time made by the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors with an account of their other proceedings and of the management of the estate and moneys committed to their trust, shall when required be laid before the General Assembly for their inspection and examination, but in case at any time hereafter through oversight, or otherwise through misapprehension and mistaken constructions of the powers, liberties and franchises in this Charter or Act of Incorporation granted, or intended to be granted, any ordinance should be made by the said corporation of Visitors and Governors or any matters done and transacted by the corporation contrary to the tenor hereof, 1t 1s enacted that although such ordinances, acts and doings shall in themselves be null and void, yet they shall not, however, in any courts oflaw, or by the General Assembly, be deemed, taken, interpreted or adjudged into an avoidance or forfeiture of this Charter and Act of Incorporation, but the same shall be and remain unhurt, inviolate and entire unto the said corporation of Visitors and Governors in perpetual succession; and all their acts conformable to the powers, true intent and meaning hereof shall be and remain in full force and validity, the nullity and avoidance of such illegal acts to the contrary in any wise notwithstanding. Polity ofSt.John's College Preamble Education is the making ofmen out ofchildren by bringing them into the world of inherited customs, intellectual traditions, and spiritual ties. Institutions of learning are set up for this purpose. Bey ond this they should also seek to develop the moral and intellectual powers ofmen to enable them to fulfill best their freely chosen tasks and thus to take their own responsible part in shaping the future. St. John 's College is a community of learning committed to holding these ends constantly in sight and to seeking the best means of attaining them. St. John 's College strives to illuminate the common heritage ofmankind in a persisting study of the great documents in which that heritage can be found. It is concerned with the unity of knowledge, an understanding ofthe great issues faced by men, and the moral foundations on which the conduct ofmen 's lives can be based. To provide proper conditions for the pursuit of these ends, we, the Board of Visitors and Governors, after consultation with the Faculty, do ordain and establish this Polity for St. John's College. Article I THE COLLEGE (1) XVII. That this Charter and Act oflncorporation and every part thereof shall be good and available in all things in the law according to the true intent and meaning thereof, and shall be construed, reputed and adjudged in all cases most favorably on the behalf and for the best benefit and behoof of the said Visitors and Governors and their successors, so as most effectually to answer the valuable end of this Act of Incorporation towards the general advancement and promotion of useful knowledge, science and virtue. St. John's College is by its Charter a legal entity, carrying on its functions from its campuses in Annapolis, Maryland, and in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Under the Charter of the College, all power, authority, and responsibility pertaining to the College are vested in the Visitors and Governors. (2) The College consists of the following: The Board of Visitors and Governors, the Faculty, the Graduate and Undergraduate Students, the Alumni and the Staff, and other members who may be named from time to time by the Board of Visitors and Governors. XVIII. That the College may establish and operate one or more branches in one or more states of the United States. (3) Under the Charter, "the said Visitors and Governors, and their successors, from time to time, and at all times hereafter, forever, shall have full power and authority to constitute and appoint, in such manner as they shall think best and most convenient, a principal and vice-principal of the said College, and professors, with proper tutors and assistants, for instructing the students and scholars of the said seminary in all the liberal arts and sciences, and in the ancient and modern tongues and languages; and the said principal, vice-principal, and professors, so constituted and appointed from time to time shall be known and distinguished forever as one learned body or faculty, by the name of ' The Principal, VicePrincipal, and Professors of St. John's College;' and by that name shall be capable of exercising such powers and authorities as the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors shall by their ordinances think necessary to delegate to them for the instruction, discipline, and government of the said seminary and of all the students, scholars, ministers and servants belonging to the same." In the Polity as hereinafter set forth the nouns "alumnus" and "alumni" and "man" and "men," either alone or in compounds such as "chairman" and "chairmen," and the pronouns "he," "him," and "his," are to be taken as referring to persons whether male or female. (a) The "principal" shall be the President, or if there are two Presidents, the Presidents. When 'president' is used in this Polity it shall mean: (i) with respect to membership on the Board of Visitors and Governors, in the Faculty, on committees of the Board, and sitting ex officio with the Instruction Committee, and for presentation of, and response to, the Statement of Educational Policy and Program (Article V (l)(c)), the President of the Annapolis campus and the President of the Santa Fe campus; (ii) with respect to membership on committees or sitting ex officio with committees, and actions or procedures relating to one campus, the President of that campus; (iii) with respect to actions under Article II (12)(b) or actions or procedures involving the entire College under Article X (l)(a)(i) and Article X (l)(a)(iii), eitl1er President. page 4 page5 �(b) The ''vice-principal" shall be the Dean who is serving as the Chairman of the Instruction Committee. (c) There shall bea Dean of St. John's College in Annapolis and a Dean of St. John's College in Santa Fe. (d) The "professors, tutors and assistants" shall bear the title Tutor or Tutor Emeritus. Tutors who have completed their tenure appointments shall be Tutors Emeriti. (e) There shall be Vice-Presidents for College Advancement and Treasurers. (f) There shall be Associate members of the Faculty, hereinafter called Associates, who shall be on either campus, as the offices may be deemed necessary, the Registrar, the Librarian, the Director of Athletics, the Director of Student Activities, the Director of Admissions, the Director of Alumni Activities, the Director ofFinancial Aid, and the Director of Placement. (g) The "one learned body or faculty," composed of the President, the Deans, the other Tutors, the Tutors Emeriti, the Vice-Presidents for College Advancement, the Treasurers, and the Associates, shall bear the title The Faculty of St. John's College. (h) All who have formally matriculated, are at the present enrolled, and are in good standing shall be called Students of St. John's College. (i) The Directors and the Tutors of the Graduate Institute shall be called The Faculty of the Graduate Institute. (j) All who have been awarded a degree by the College shall be called Alumni. In addition, all who have completed at least one semester of undergraduate study or at least one segment of Graduate Institute study, but who are not currently enrolled, shall be called Alumni either a) in the case of undergraduate students, when their class has graduated, orb) in the case of Graduate Institute students, at the end of three full sessions of the Graduate Institute, summer and winter, after the one in which they last enrolled. All who have ever been Alumni shall continue to be. (k) The Staff shall consist of all persons appointed by the President who are not members of the Faculty of St. John' s College or the Faculty of the Graduate Institute. (1) There shall be no discrimination at St. John's College in appointments, conditions of employment, admissions, educational policy, financial aid programs, athletics, or other activities, on the basis of race, religion, age, sex, national origin, color, or physical handicap, discrimination in each case being understood in accordance with the proscriptions of federal law. of the College, in the manner and for the terms hereinafter provided. In recognition of meritorious service to the College, Visitors Emeriti may be elected to the Board who may attend all meetings of the Board, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (3) There shall be a Nominating Committee of seven members of the Board appointed by the Chairman. The Chairman and the Presidents shall sit with the committee, ex officio, when nominations to Board membership are being considered. The Nominating Committee shall recommend to each member of the Board in writing, not later than thirty days prior to the annual meeting at which the election is to be held, at least one candidate for each of the places to be filled by such election, including each position as an officer of the Board. Additional nominations may be made in writing, addressed to the Chairman, signed by at least five members of the Board, prior to the date above provided for the report of the Nominating Committee, and any such additional nominations shall be reported to the Board by the Committee at the time of its report. Voting on nominations at annual meetings may be by ballot, each member present to vote for fifteen of the said nominees. In case the balloting results in a tie for one or more positions, the Board shall determine the procedure to resolve the tie. No nominee for member or officer of the Board shall be deemed elected who has not received the affirmative votes of at least a majority of the members present at the meeting. If there should be fewer than fifteen members in any class prior to the end of the term for such class, the vacancy may be filled pursuant to the procedure provided above for regular elections, except that the election may take place at any regular meeting. A member elected to fill any such vacancy shall hold office for the remainder of the term of the class in which such vacancy occurred. (4) Elections by the Alumni. Each year in the spring, three alumni shall be elected to membership for a term of three years, in such manner that there shall be nine members of the Board elected by the alumni, consisting of three classes of three members each. Outgoing alumni members shall continue to serve until their successors are elected. The Directors of Alumni Activities shall request the Board of the Alumni Association to nominate at least one candidate for each vacancy. Additional candidates may be nominated by petition of any thirty alumni. All alumni shall be eligible to vote for the alumni members of the Board. Balloting will be conducted by mail by the Directors of Alumni Activities. In the event that for any reason there should be fewer than three alumni members in any class prior to the end of the term of that class, the vacancy shall be filled by interim election, conducted in the same manner. Newly-elected alumni shall begin their term at the meeting next following the annual meeting of the Board. Article II VISITORS AND GOVERNORS (1) (2) Qualifications for Membership. Persons shall be eligible for membership on the Board of Visitors and Governors who are concerned for the maintenance, progress, and vitality of St. John' s College's educational program and who are willing and able to discharge the responsibilities of trusteeship with devotion and energy. Members. The Board of Visitors and Governors shall consist of not more than sixty members, comprising the Presidents, the Deans, the Governors of Maryland and New Mexico, ex officio, and fifty-four members, of whom forty-five shall be elected by the entire Board and nine shall be elected by the Alumni page 6 Elections by the Board. At each annual meeting, the Board shall elect a class of no more than fifteen members for a term of three years, to succeed those members whose tenn expires at the conclusion of said meeting. Those members elected shall begin their term at the meeting next following their election. The procedure for nomination and election shall be as follows : (5) Faculty Representation at Board Meetings. Three members of the Faculty shall be elected by the Faculty on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on the campus to which they belong, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (6) Student Representation at Board Meetings. Two students shall be elected by the students on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on the campus to which they belong, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. page 7 �(7) Graduate Institute Director Representation at Board Meetings. Each Director of the Graduate Institute may attend all regular sessions of the Board on the campus to which he belongs, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (8) Graduate Institute Student Representation at Board Meetings. A student of the Graduate Institute shall be elected by the students of the Graduate Institute on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on the campus to which he belongs, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (9) Alumni Association Representation at Board Meetings. The President of the Alumni Association shall be . invited to attend all regular sessions of the Board, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (10) Staff Representation at Board Meetings. The Staff on each campus shall be invited to send two representatives to all regular sessions of the Board at that campus, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (11) Reelection. A member of the Board elected by the Board or by the Alumni may be elected for not more than two consecutive terms, but may, after a second consecutive term, be reelected to membership at the annual meeting in the year following the expiration of the member's second term. (12) Meetings of the Board. (a) Regular meetings of the Board shall be held quarterly in either Annapolis or Santa Fe. The Spring meeting shall be called the annual meeting. The time and place of regular meetings shall be determined by the Chairman, in consultation with the President, and notice of regular meetings shall be given not less than fifteen days prior to such meetings. (b) Special meetings of the Board may be called by the President, the Chairman, the Executive Committee, or any ten members of the Board, not less than seven days after the dispatch of written, faxed, or e-mail notice of the time, place, and purposes of the meeting. Such notice may be dispensed with if waived in writing by all members of the Board either before or after the meeting. (c) Any business may be conducted at a regular meeting without specific notice of such business (except that which is required by law or as provided herein as to elections and amendments), but no business shall be conducted at any special meeting unless notice of such business has been given, or has been waived as above provided. (d) One third of the members of the Board shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. (e) The Board in regular session is open to elected and ex officio members, to Visitors Emeriti, to Associates invited by the President, and to official representatives of the Faculty, Students, Graduate Institute, Alumni Association and Staff. Attendance at Executive sessions shall be limited to voting members and Visitors Emeriti. Public sessions shall be open without restriction. The Chairman of the Board, in consultation with the President, shall determine whether any meeting or portion of a meeting shall be in regular, executive, or public session. ( 13) Officers of the Board. At each annual meeting the Board shall elect a Chairman, two Vice-Chairmen, and a Secretary, to hold office until the next annual meeting or until their successors are elected. Vacancies in any such offices may be filled at any regular meeting, or any special meeting called for that purpose. Such officers shall perform the customary duties of such offices, and such other duties as the Board may from time to time direct. page8 (14) Committees of the Board. (a) Executive Committee. The Chairman, the Vice-Chairmen, the Secretary, the Presidents, the Deans, and four other members chosen annually by the Board at the annual meeting shall comprise the Executive Committee of the Board. In intervals between meetings of the Board, the Executive Committee may act for the Board, except in those matters expressly delegated to some other committee, person, or persons. Seven members of the Executive Committee present at a meeting shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. The Executive Committee shall determine the compensation of the Vice Presidents and Treasurers, upon receiving the recommendations of the . Compensation Review Committee. The Executive Committee shall recommend to the Board the compensation of the Presidents, upon receiving the recommendations of the Compensation Review Committee. (b) Presidential Search Committee. There shall be a Presidential Search Committee to recommend the appointment of a President as provided in Article IV(2). (c) Nominating Committee. There shall be a nominating Committee for membership of the Board and for officers of the Board as provided in Article 11(3). (d) Visiting Committee. There shall be a Visiting Committee appointed by the Chairman. The Visiting Committee shall meet at least once annually with the Instruction Committee on each campus. The Visiting Committee shall discuss the Statement of Educational Policy and Program of the Chairman of the Instruction Committee and become acquainted with the aims of the College and how they are being realized. (e) Finance Committee. There shall be a Finance Committee consisting of the Chairman, the Presidents, and the Treasurers of the College, ex officio, and six or more members appointed by the Chairman. The Chairman of the Board shall appoint one of the members to be the Chairman of the Committee. The Finance Committee shall have the following powers and duties: The Finance Committee shall, after consultation with the Investment Committee make recommendations to the Board concerning the appropriate policies for annual or periodic expenditures from each of the college' s endowments. (ii) The Finance Committee shall review the proposed annual budgets of the College prior to their presentation for approval by the Board and shall make recommendations to the Board with respect to the budgets at the meeting at which they are presented. (iii) The Finance Committee shall study, and periodically advise the Board with respect to, the financial business policies and practices of the College, and shall make such special studies and reports as the Board may from time to time request. (i) (f) Audit Committee. There shall be an Audit Committee of five persons, including a Chairman, appointed by the Chairman of the Board. The Treasurers shall serve as non-voting Staff to the Committee. The Committee shall review in detail the annual report of the independent auditors and discuss audit findings with the auditors, unattended by employees of the College. (ii) The Committee shall meet with representatives of the independent auditors to the next audit to discuss scope and procedures and any other matters requiring special attention. (iii) The Committee shall discuss with College personnel any corrective action required as a result of the audit report. (iv) The Committee shall recommend to the Board the appointment or reappointment of independent auditors to conduct the audit for the next fiscal year. (v) The Committee shall report to the Board annually on its review of the audit and shall bring to the attention of the Board any matters related thereto requiring Board action. (i) page 9 �(g) Compensation Review Committee. There shall be a Compensation Review Committee of not more than five members, including a Chairman, appointed by the Chairman of the Board. and powers, and like papers and documents on behalf of the College or the Endowment Funds shall be executed by two persons, of whom one shall be the President, the Chairman, or the Vice-Chairman, and of whom the other shall be the Secretary of the Board or the Treasurer of the campus concerned. (i) The Committee shall recommend to the Board policies for direct and indirect compensation of Tutors, Associate members of the Faculty, other Faculty members, and Staff at the College. It shall annually review the compensation policies and performance with respect to them and report the findings of this review to the Board. (ii) The Committee shall recommend to the Executive Committee the compensation of the Presidents, Vice-Presidents for College Advancement, and Treasurers of the College. (iii) In matters of policy and compensation, the Committee shall consult the Presidents and the Chairman of the Finance Committee. (h) (i) Polity Review Committee. There shall be a Polity Review Committee of not more than five members appointed by the Chairman every fifth year. The Committee shall receive the report of the Faculty Committee and after appropriate study shall make recommendations to the Board for consideration at the annual meeting when the final review of the Polity is consummated. The respective Chairmen of the Board and Faculty Review Committees shall make such arrangements as they deem appropriate for joint consultation prior to and after the adoption of the report by the Faculty. Investment Committee. There shall be an Investment Committee consisting of at least one member of the Finance Committee (appointed by the Chairman of the Board), the Treasurers of the college, ex officio, and four or more other members appointed by the Chairman. The Chairman of the Board shall appoint one of the members to be Chairman of the Committee. The Investment Committee shall have the following powers and duties: (i) The Investment Committee shall have full power to direct the investment and reinvestment of all funds of the College, including endowment and restricted funds, and the proper officers of the Board and the College are authorized to carry out all written directions, signed by the Chairman of the Committee, with respect to such investments and reinvestments. The Committee shall report at each regular meeting any action taken hereunder since the previous meeting. (ii) The Committee shall advise the Finance Committee on the question of the appropriate endowment spending policies for the College, and shall consult with the Finance Committee on any matter that it judges may affect the financial condition of the College that may need action by the Finance Committee. (j) Other Committees. The Chairman may appoint such other standing or special committees of the Board as he may deem desirable or which the Board may request. (k) Former members of the Board and Visitors Emeriti may be appointed by the Chairman to serve on Committees at his discretion. (1) Except for the Presidential Search Committee and the Polity Review Committee, committee appointments shall be made annually. Members of the Committees serve until their successors have been appointed. (m) Any member of the Board may, without invitation, attend any Board committee meeting, except those of the Presidential Search, Nominating and Executive Committees, but without vote. (n) (16) Signing of Checks, Drafts, Etc. All checks, drafts, acceptances, and similar orders for the payment of money on behalf of the College may be signed by the same persons authorized to execute contracts, etc., pursuant to Section (15) hereof, but may also be signed by such persons, and in such manner, as the Board may from time to time direct by appropriate resolution. Article III THE FACULTY The Visitors and Governors by these ordinances hereby delegate to the Faculty of St. John' s College-the President, the Deans, the other Tutors, the Tutors Emeriti, the Vice-Presidents for College Advancement, the Treasurers, and the Associates-"powers and authorities" for the "instruction, discipline, and government" of the College. Article IV THE FACULTY: THE PRESIDENT (1) There shall be a President for the Annapolis campus and a President for the Santa Fe campus, each appointed as provided in Article IV (2). There is delegated to each President by the Visitors and Governors executive responsibility and authority for the instruction, discipline, and government of the campus of which he is President, and the President, in turn, may delegate his authority. In the interest of the orderly conduct of business and of maintaining and promoting the unity of the College, the Presidents shall regularly consult and communicate with each other and, as appropriate, with other College officials, on matters of common concern. (2) The President shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of a Committee composed of five members of the Board of Visitors and Governors, at least one of whom is an alumnus, the Deans, and one Tutor having tenure from each campus elected by the Faculty on that campus. This Committee shall be known as the Presidential Search Committee. It shall consult with the continuing President in a regular and timely fashion. Prior to making its final recommendation, it shall, on both campuses, consult with all other appropriate persons and shall arrange for the final candidates to meet with the Faculty and the Instruction Committee. (3) The President shall concurrently be a Tutor, but the provisions of Article VI need not apply. (4) The President and persons to whom he delegates his authority shall consult with the Deans, other appropriate persons, and appropriate Faculty committees in matters of policy, initiation of programs, and setting of priorities affecting the general welfare of the College. (5) There shall be a Financial Committee on each campus consisting of the President as Chairman, the Dean and Treasurer of the campus, and other members the President may appoint. It will review proposed budgets prior to their being presented to the FinanceCommittee of the Board. It will also meet prior to Board meetings to review performance in the fiscal year to date and emerging budgetary strengths and weaknesses. (6) The President shall appoint, or delegate the power to appoint, otl1er committees as may be necessary for the carrying out of his duties and for which no provision is made under Article IX. Whenever a Capital Campaign is in progress, its Chairman shall be an ex-officio voting member of the Finance and Executive Committees. (15) Execution of Contracts, Transfer of Securities, Etc. All contracts of $50,000 or more, notes, deeds, leases, mortgages, releases, bonds for security or indemnity, negotiable instruments, stock certificates, transfers, page 10 page 11 �(7) If in the judgment of the Board of Visitors and Governors, the College is facing a financial exigencyat either or both of its campuses which could call for a reduction in the number of Facultypositions, both Presidents shall immediately advise the Faculty of the nature and extent of the financial difficulty and consult with them concerning the best way to address the situation. The Faculty may then make a formal recommendation to the Presidents on ways to meet the problem, or, if the Faculty fails so to act, the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall propose a plan to the Presidents. The Presidents shall jointly then determine a plan which specifies a preferred course of action to be taken. All necessary steps must be taken in timely fashion as prescribed by the Board. Nothing herein provided shall limit the power of the Board to act otherwise in the event ofneed to reduce or eliminate Faculty positions. (e) During the absence of the President from either campus, the Dean on that campus shall if necessary exercise the President's prerogative of final decision. (f) During the absence of either Dean from the campus a Tutor with tenure named by him shall act for the Dean. (g) The Dean on each campus shall appoint such committees as may be necessary for the carrying out of his duties and for which no other provision is made. Article VI Article V THE FACULTY: THE CHAIRMAN OF THE INSTRUCTION COMMITTEE AND THE DEANS THE FACULTY: THE TUTORS (1) The primary responsibilities of the Tutors are to teach and to make themselves as competent as possible in all parts of the St. John's Program. (2) The Tutors shall have authority to recommend to the Visitors and Governors candidates for degrees on their respective campuses. (3) Appointment and Reappointment of Tutors. Tutors shall be appointed by the Visitors and Governors upon recommendation of the President in accordance with the recommendation of the Dean and the Instruction Committee on that campus where the Tutors so appointed shall teach. (1) The Chairman of the Instruction Committee. (a) (b) (c) (d) There is delegated to the Chairman of the Instruction Committee responsibility and authority for the organization of the program of instruction in the liberal arts that is followed by the Tutors and the Students. The Deans shall serve alternately, for a term of one year, as Chairman of the Instruction Committee. Each year the Chairman of the Instruction Committee shall, after consultation with the Instruction Committee on his campus, and after discussion with the Instruction Committee of the College, submit a Statement of Educational Policy and Program to the Faculty as a whole for discussion. The President shall present the Statement, together with an account of the Faculty discussion ofit and his response to it, as a report to the Board of Visitors and Governors for its consideration. The Chairman of the Instruction Committee shall, as he or the Chairman of the Board of Visitors and Governors may deem appropriate, report to the Board on instructional matters, and shall respond to such questions as the Board, through its Chairman, may direct to him. (2) The Deans. (a) There is delegated to the Deans on their respective campuses responsibility and authority for the supervision of the program of instruction and for the general welfare of the students and for whatever government of the students be necessary for the greatest possible attainment of aims of the program. Each Dean shall be the Chairman of the Instruction Committee on the campus where he serves. In carrying out his duties, each Dean shall consult regularly with the President and with the Instruction Committee and the other appropriate Faculty committees on that campus. (b) The Deans shall be appointed for terms of five years from among the Tutors by the Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President after consultation with a special committee of seven, four from the campus for which the Dean is being chosen and three from the other campus, selected from among themselves by the Tutors having tenure. (c) A Dean shall be appointed from among the tutors who have themselves been appointed in accord with Article VI(3). If non-tenured, the appointee shall acquire tenure upon becoming Dean, in which case the provisions of Article Vl(3)(a) regarding reappointment schedules shall not apply. (d) To assist them in carrying out their duties, the Deans shall recommend one or more Tutors to be appointed by the President with the title of Assistant Dean. page 12 (a) The schedule ofregular appointment of Tutors on each campus shall be either (i)(A) or (i)(B) below, to be decided by the President in accordance with the recommendation of the Dean and the Instruction Committee on that campus where the Tutors so appointed shall teach: (i)(A) New Tutors shall be appointed for one year unless they are appointed at mid-year, in which case the initial appointment shall be for a year and a half. First reappointments shall be-for one year. Second and third reappointments shall be for two and three years respectively. (i)(B) New Tutors shall be appointed for two years unless they are appointed at mid-year, in which case the initial appointment shall be for a year and a half. First and second reappointments shall be for two and three years respectively. (ii) A Tutor who has completed a three-year appointment must either be given a tenure appointment or not be reappointed as Tutor. A Tutor may, however, be given a tenure appointment as early as the conclusion of the first year of a three-year appointment. Procedures leading to a recommendation for an early tenure appointment shall be initiated by the Dean and Instruction Committee, but not without the consent of the appointee, and shall not prejudice subsequent consideration for a tenure appointment. Tenure appointments shall not continue beyond retirement. Tutors Emeriti shall retain their privileges and responsibilities in voting at Faculty meetings. (iii) Before making recommendations to the President on tenure appointments the Dean on each campus shall consult with the Instruction Committee on that campus, after seeking the advice of the Tutors on that campus. (iv) A Tutor, to be recommended for a tenure appointment, must have served full-time at the campus where the recommendation is to be made for the two years immediately preceding the year in which that recommendation is made, the provisions of (ii) above notwithstanding. In ordinary cases, these two years of service will be the second year of a two-year appointment and the first year of a three-year appointment. These requirements may be waived by the President on the recommendation of the Dean and Instruction Committee on tl1at campus. page 13 �(b) (c) (d) (e) (4) A non-tenure appointment as Tutor establishes the possibility, but not the presumption, of its renewal and the granting of a tenure appointment. Procedures for considering non-tenure appointments differ from those for considering tenure appointments. Satisfaction of appointment criteria admits of degree. With each successive reappointment, the criteria are applied more rigorously. For a tenure appointment the application is especially strict. (7) The sabbatical leave program is designed to provide Tutors with an opportunity for study, rest, and renewalof spmt, m anticipation of future teaching. It is the objective of the program to grant all apphcations for sabbatical leave meeting the conditions for eligibility set out in (a) of this section. It is understood that Tutors on such leave will not undertake full-time remunerative employment elsewhere and will return to the College. For the purpose of temporary transfer between campuses, special appointments of one or two years may be granted to a Tutor in addition to his regular appointments. The Tutor may ask that such an appointment be counted as a regular appointment for the purpose of (a) above. In the case of a permanent transfer a Tutor may ask that his years of service at the other campus be counted toward tenure according to the provisions of (a) above. Nevertheless, the provisions of (3) (a}(iv) prevail. (a) Eligibility for sabbatical leave shall be upon the following conditions: (i) A Tutor who has received a tenure appointment may apply for a full year of sabbatical leave at . full salary, provided he shall have completed the equivalent of seven full years of service to the College since hisoriginal appointment, or the equivalent of six full years of service since any preVIous sabbatical leave, and the sabbatical leave would not occur in the last two years of his tenure appointment. (ii) Such a Tutor may apply for an earlier sabbatical leave of a full year at partial salary, or a partial year at full salary. The fractional salary or fractional year shall be determined by the number of years of teaching completed in relation to the prescribed total for either an initial or a _subsequent sabbatical leave, as the case may be. In no case shall a Tutor be paid more than his regular salary. Sabbatical leave for a fraction of a year may not occur during the last two years of a Tutor's tenure appointment. Special one-year appointments and reappointments may be given to Tutors who intend to teach on a part-time basis only. Such a Tutor may subsequently apply for and receive a regular appointment. Special part-time appointments may then be counted on a fractional basis toward eligibility for tenure, but see (3)(a)(iv). In establishing eligibility for sabbatical leave, special part-time appointments shall be computed proportionately. Visiting Tutors may be appointed for a tenn or a year. Notification. (a) If, in the judgment of the President, financial or academic needs at a campus should require that fewer sabbatical leaves be granted there in a given year than there are qualified applicants, and if the number that can be granted there should be smaller than one-sixth of the number of Tutors at that campus having tenure and not on full-time leave under the provisions of section (8) below, the President shall so notify the Board of Visitors and Governors and seek its approval for delaying a sabbaucal leave for one or more of the applicants. (c) If in a year there are more qualified applicants for sabbatical leave at any one campus than there are leaves to be granted at that campus, then those members shall have precedence who meet the following conditions in the order set forth: (b) A Tutor under consideration for a non-tenure appointment to begin in a certain calendar year shall be notified by the President no later than December l 5tl1 of the preceding calendar year whether his reappointment will be recommended to the Board of Visitors and Governors. If he is reappointed the President shall so notify him by March 1st of the calendar year in which the newappointment is to begin. (b) A Tutor under consideration for a tenure appointment to begin in a certain calendar year shall be notified by the President no later than May 31st of the preceding calendar year whether his appointment will be recommended to the Board of Visitors and Governors. If he is appointed the President shall so notify him by July 31st of that same preceding year. (5) A Tutor may apply to the Instruction Committee of the College not later than January 15th for a transfer of campus for the next academic year. Transfers shall require approval of both Deans after consultation with their Instruction Committees. (6) (a) A Tutor may have his appointment terminated by the Board of Visitors and Governors for one of the following reasons only: (i) When there is a conflict of precedence, the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned shall be consulted. failure or inability to perform his teaching duties in a satisfactory manner, or (ii) moral turpitude. The President shall make such a recommendation to the Board of Visitors and Governors only with the concurrence of the Dean and the Instruction Committee of the campus concerned. Before the President makes such a recommendation he shall advise the Tutor affected of his intention to do so, and the Tutor shall have the right to be heard by the Instruction Committee or, if he prefers, by another committee to be designated by the President for this purpose. (b) Those who have served for the greater number of years since their first appointment as Tutor or smce their last sabbatical leave, whichever is more recent; (ii) Those whose service has been continuous throughout those years; (iii) Those whose last sabbatical leave was postponed because of the financial or academic needs of the College; (iv) Those who have seniority of appointment. (i) Either Dean, with the approval of the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned, may recommend to the President that in the interest of instruction a Tutor be temporarily relieved of his duties in whole or in part at any time. When such action is taken, the Tutor's salary shall be continued for the remain,der of the current academic year. page 14 (d) A Tutor eligible for sabbatical leave shall make application to the President before November 1st for leave to begin the following July 1st, and shall be informed of the action upon his application not later than January 1st. (8) The President, with the concurrence of the Dean after consultation with the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned,may grant leaves of absence to Tutors for a period of one year or less. At that time it shall be determined whether the leave shall be counted as service to the College with respect to eligibility for sabbatical leave and, if so, how. The decision with respect to a request for leave of absence shall be made in the hght of the requirements both of the applicant Tutor and of the whole College. (a) Leave of absence may be renewed upon request but not more than twice in succession except in extraordinary circumstances. page 15 �(b) A request for a leave of absence shall be submitted to the President as early as possible in the academic year before the year in which the leave is to be taken, but not later than January 15th of that year. Requests for leaves of absence may be withdrawn at any time prior to April 1st of the year in which the request is submitted. Requests for leaves of absence for the second semester must be submitted no later than October 15th. (a) The Registrars. The Registrars shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses. They shall prepare and supervise the registration of students and shall be responsible for the academic records and schedules of students. (b) The Librarians. The Librarians shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the operation of the library. Appointments of professional members of the Library Staff shall be made upon the recommendation of the Librarian to the Dean on each campus. (c) The Directors of Student Activities and the Directors of Athletics. The Directors of Student Activities and the Directors of Athletics shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for devising and directing programs of recreational activities. (c) Tutors on sabbatical leave or leave of absence remain members of the Faculty with the right of full participation in Faculty meetings and all other College exercises. Article VII THE FACULTY: THE VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR COLLEGE ADVANCEMENT AND THE TREASURERS (d) The Directors of Admissions. The Directors of Admissions shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the annual enrollment of qualified Freshmen. (1) (e) The Directors of Alumni Activities. The Directors of Alumni Activities shall be responsible to the Vice-Presidents for College Advancement. Their primary duty is to enable the College and the Alumni Association to be of service to alumni. (f) The Directors of Financial Aid. The Directors of Financial Aid shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the administration of financial aid programs. (2) The Vice-Presidents for College Advancement shall be responsible to the President for the supervision and development of all programs in fund-raising, public relations, and alumni relations on their respective campuses. . . The Vice-President for College Advancement on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of V1S1tors and Governors on the recommendation of the President made after consultation with the Dean on that campus and a committee constituted by resolution of the Faculty on that campus. (3) The Treasurers shall have charge, on their respective campuses, under the supervision of the President, of all funds and property, and shall have authority to carry out fiscal and property transactions, and to receive and disburse funds, subject to the provisions of this Polity and other directions and arrangements pursuant thereto. (4) The Treasurer on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President made after consultation with the Dean on that campus and a committee constituted by resolution of the Faculty on that campus. (5) The Vice-Presidents for College Advancement and Treasurers may be appointed Tutors under the provisions of Article Vl(3)(d). (g) The Directors of Placement. The Directors of Placement shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for helping and counseling students with respect to graduate and professional schools and careers. (h) Persons designated Associates under the provisions of Article I(3)(f) or of Article VII(3)(k) ofthis Polity as amended through April 20, 1985, whose offices are not specifically named in this Article, shall continue to be Associates until the expiration of their appointments to those offices. Article IX THE FACULTY: FACULTY COMMITTEES Article VIlI THE FACULTY: THE ASSOCIATES (1) Associate members of the Faculty on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President in consultation with the Dean of that campus. The President shall have ultimate executive authority over the Associates. (2) Associates may be appointed Tutors under the provisions of Article VI (3)(d). (3) The Associates on either campus may establish for themselves an Associates' Council for the purpose of considering College matters of concern to them and communicating with other members of the College. (4) The Associates' Council may establish such committees as it deems appropriate. (5) There shall be the following Associates, as deemed necessary by the President on each campus, with the powers and responsibilities provided. (1) The Instruction Committee (a) The Instruction Committee shares with its Chairmen responsibility for the program of instruction of the College. It shall consist of twelve Tutors in addition to the Deans. The Presidents shall sit with the Committee ex officio. Six of the Tutors shall be elected from each campus of the College. The Instruction Committee shall meet annually. On each campus the members of the Instruction Committee and the Dean as Chairman constitute the Instruction Committee of the College on that campus. The President sits ex officio with the Instruction Committee on each campus. (b) Each of the members of the Instruction Committee shall serve for a term of three years, and the terms shall be arranged in such a way that each year the terms of two members at each campus shall expire. Terms begin and end the day following commencement exercises. Annually, and separately at each campus, the President with the Dean on his campus, after consulting with the Instruction Committee and seeking the advice of the other ,Tutors on that campus, shall at the last regular Faculty meeting on that campus nominate four Tutors of whom two shall be elected by the Tutors to membership on the Instruction Committee. The Faculty shall be informed of the names of the nominees prior to the meeting at which the election occurs. At the expiration of the three-year term a member of the Instruction Committee shall for one year be ineligible for reelection. page 16 page 17 �(c) (d) (2) If for any reason a member of the Instruction Committee is unable to serve for a part of his term, another Tutor shall be chosen to take his place for that part of the term. For this purpose the President and the Dean, in consultation with the Instruction Committee on the campus where the vacancy occurs, shall nominate two Tutors of whom the Tutors shall elect one in a regular Faculty meeting. If the Instruction Committee resigns with the Deans on a matter of confidence and the resignations are accepted, the President, in consultation with the new Deans and after seeking the advice of the other Tutors, shall nominate nine Tutors for the six vacancies on each campus in such a manner that two out of each three nominees shall be elected by the Tutors for each of the three classes to fill the unexpired terms. rticle X THE FACULTY: FACULTY PROCEDURE ( 1) Procedure for Instructional Proposals. (a)(i) Any proposal concerning matters of instruction that may affect the College as a whole shall originate with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on either campus. A decision as to whether a proposal is college-wide or campus-specific shall be made by the Deans and Instruction Committee of the College. This decision shall be made after notifying the faculty on both campuses and inviting their comment. Written statements of college-wide instructional proposals shall be distributed to the Faculty at least two weeks before the Faculty meeting at which they are to be presented; the proposal shall be presented to the whole Faculty by the Chairman of the Instruction Committee, either in his own person or through the other Dean as his representative. If, after full discussion of any proposal so presented, there be no objection on the part of any Tutor, the measure stands approved and becomes effective as of the date specified therefor. If, after full discussion, a Tutor objects to the proposal and holds to his objection, the proposal shall be submitted to vote of the Tutors at special Faculty meetings called by the Presidents within a month. Any objections that have been made and held to and submitted in writing shall be transmitted immediately in writing to the whole faculty. Any objections that have been made and held to but not submitted in writing shall be reported immediately in writing to the whole Faculty. If, after discussion, any objection has been made and held to, the Presidents, in calling special Faculty meetings, shall report the statement of the Chairman of the Instruction and the Dean on the other campus as to whether it be a matter of confidence; and in submitting the proposal to vote, the Chairman of the Instruction Committee and the Dean on the other campus shall, at the special Faculty meetings, repeat their statement as to whether it be a matter of confidence. The vote may then be taken and tallied by the Presidents in such a fashion that the Tutors shall have recorded their decision acting as a whole. If the proposal be one that the Chairman of the Instruction Committee and the other Dean have declared a matter of confidence and if it be defeated by majority vote, the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall immediately resign. !fit be passed by majority vote, it shall become effective as of the date specified therefor. For the confidence procedure a quorum shall consist of three-fourths of all resident Tutors on each campus. (ii) Any instructional proposal that has been deemed campus-specific shall be subject to the procedure set forth above, except that, if an objection is made and held to on either campus, voting shall proceed only on the campus were the proposal is intended to be put into effect. Any objections that have been made and held to and submitted in writing on the other campus shall be transmitted immediately to the voting faculty. Any objections that have been made and held to but not submitted in writing shall be reported immediately in writing to the voting Faculty. If the confidence procedure is invoked, it shall be only by the Dean on the voting campus, and it shall affect the Dean and the Instruction Committee only on that campus. The Tutors' Compensation Committee (a) There shall be a Tutors' Compensation Committee of six Tutors, three to be elected by the Tutors on each campus, whose chairmanship shall annually alternate between campuses. The Committee shall advise the President concerning Tutors' compensation and related matters; it shall make annual reviews of the College's statement of Tutors' salaries and other compensation of Tutors and report to the Tutors and the President recommendations consequent upon the review. (b) Members of the Committee shall be elected annually on each campus for terms of three years in such a manner that the term of one member on each campus terminates each year. The Tutors' Compensation Committee on each campus shall provide the Tutors on that campus with two nominations for each vacancy on the Committee on that campus. Additional nominations may be made at the Faculty meeting when election shall be made. (3) The Library Committees. The President, in consultation with the Librarian and the Dean, shall appoint three Tutors on each campus to serve as a Library Committee. The President, the Dean, and the Librarian shall themselves be ex officio members of the Committee, and the Librarian shall serve as Chairman. It shall be the duty of the Library Committees to assist the Librarians in making the Libraries serve the ends of the College and its program; it shall be their duty to advise the Librarians in regard to Library policy and acquisitions. The Managers of the Bookstores may be invited to sit with the Committees. (4) The Campus Planning Committees. The Faculty on each campus shall elect five of its members as a Campus Planning Committee. Two members shall be elected to the Committee annually at the first regular meeting of the academic session except in every third year, when one member shall be chosen. The President, the Dean, one of the Assistant Deans, and the Treasurer on each campus shall sit ex officio with the Committee on that campus. It shall be the duty of the respective committees to advise the President on the construction of new buildings, the renovation of old buildings, landscaping of grounds, and all matters relating to the maintenance and development of the campus. (5) The Prize Committees. Every three years the President shall appoint Tutors on each campus to supervise the awarding of prizes on the respective campuses. The Committees shall have full authority to decide what prizes shall be awarded and to name the recipients of the prizes. (6) The Fellowship Committees. On each campus there shall be a Fellowship Committee appointed by the President. It shall be the duty of this Committee to inform students of fellowships for which they may be eligible, to assist them in applying for fellowships, and to act on behalf of the College in any matter relating to application for fellowships. (7) Other Committees. The Faculty on each campus shall have authority to elect, or to request the President to appoint, additional committees that may from time to time become necessary. page 18 (iii) The President may refuse to accept the resignation of the Deans or the Instruction Committee, any or all of them, whenever in his judgment such resignation would be detrimental to the proper functioning of the College; provided, however, that if any six or more Tutors shall petition the Visitors and Governors, the latter shall review the President's decision within four weeks, during which time the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall continue in office. (iv) In the event that the proposal be defeated and the resignations be accepted, the President shall proceed to the choice of new Deans in accordance with the provisions of Article V (2)(b). (b) Upon either a petition of not less than one-tenth of the Tutors on either campus or a request from the President, the Dean and Instruction Committee on that campus shall consider any recommendation concerning instruction and shall report to the Faculty within one year their page 19 �proposal concerning it. They shall decide whether their proposal is a major proposal, and the procedure of Article X(l) shall apply. (2) Faculty Meetings. (a) (3) (c) (d) the establishment and maintenance of formal channels of communication between the students and the Faculty; and (e) any other duties agreed upon by the students and the Dean. Regular monthly meetings of the Faculty shall be called upon due notice by the President; except that in the period comprising the months of December and January only one regular meeting need be called. The President or, in his absence, the Dean, shall preside. In the absence of the President and the Dean, the Faculty shall elect one of its members to preside. (b) Special meetings of the Faculty may be called upon due notice by the President, either at his own discretion or at the request of five Faculty members. (c) Due notice shall be construed to mean no less than three days notice, except in cases of emergency. (d) A quorum shall consist of a majority of the Faculty in residence except as otherwise provided. (e) Only Tutors may vote on instructional matters. All Faculty members may vote on all other matters not specifically restricted in the Polity. Article XIII THE GRADUATE INSTITUTE (1) The Secretary of the Faculty. At the last regular meeting of an academic year the Faculty on each campus shall elect one of its members, then in at least his third year at the College, as Secretary. The Secretary shall assist in the preparation and circulation of the agenda for Faculty meetings, shall keep the minutes of such meetings, and shall collect and circulate reports of Faculty committees. Article XI THE SCHOLARS-IN-RESIDENCE AND THE ARTISTS-IN-RESIDENCE The Scholars-in-Residence and the Artists-in-Residence shall be appointed from time to time by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President after consultation with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the campus where the Scholars and Artists shall reside. Article XII (2) THE STUDENTS (1) (2) (3) the representation of the students of St. John's College to the community outside the College; The primary responsibilities of the students are to study and to make themselves as competent as possible in all parts of the St. John's Program. Their advice and service shall be sought by the Faculty in such matters and in such ways as may best serve the general welfare of the College. The students of St. John's College shall constitute the Student Polity of St. John' s College in Annapolis and in Santa Fe. The Student Polity in Annapolis or Santa Fe may establish for itself a government which is representative of all polity members. The Dean on each campus may delegate to the Student government a share of the responsibility for the general welfare of the students and whatever government of the students may be necessary for the greatest possible attainment of the aims of the program. The duties of the Student Government may include: (a) the management of funds available to the Student Polity; (b) the sanctioning of all student clubs, organizations, and activities, and their regulation, if necessary; page 20 (3) The Directors. (a) There shall be a Director of the Graduate Institute on each campus to whom shall be delegated responsibility and authority, under the Chairman of the Instruction Committee, for the organization and supervision on his campus of the graduate program of instruction in the liberal arts and for matters concerning the general welfare of the students. Concerning matters that affect the Graduate Institute as a whole the Director shall, in consultation with his fellow Director, be responsible to the Chairman of the Instruction Committee. Concerning matters limited to his own campus he shall be responsible to the Dean on his own campus. (b) The Directors shall be appointed for terms of three years from among the Tutors by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President, after consultation with the Deans and a special committee consisting of four members, two from each campus, selected from among themselves by the Tutors having tenure. The Directors shall be Tutors of the Graduate Institute. (c) Every three years, after consultation with his fellow director and the Committee for the Graduate Institute on his own campus, one of the Directors shall submit a Statement of Educational Policy and Program for the Graduate Institute to the Instruction Committee for discussion at its joint meeting. After making any revisions he deems appropriate, he shall submit it to the Faculty as a whole for discussion. The Faculty of the Graduate Institute. (a) Each Director, after consultation with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on that campus, and in accordance with the recommendation of the Instruction Committee on the same campus, shall recommend to the President Tutors of the Graduate Institute for summer appointment to teach in the Graduate Institute for one session. (b) During the summer term the Tutors of the Graduate Institute on each campus shall have the authority to recommend to the Board of Visitors and Governors candidates for degrees. Committees for the Graduate Institute. (a) On each campus the Committee for the Graduate Institute shares with the Director on the same campus responsibility for carrying out the program of instruction of the Graduate Institute and for the general welfare of the students. (b) Each Committee shall consist of three Tutors who have experience in the Institute, in addition to the Director, who shall serve as Chairman. (c) Members of each Committee shall be appointed by the Director with the concurrence of the Dean on the same campus after consultation with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on that campus. page 21 �(4) Proposals concerning matters of instruction or policy shall originate with one of the Directors, after consultation with the other Director and with the Committee for the Graduate Institute, and shall be submitted to the Dean on the originating campus for handling in accordance with Article X(l)(a)(i). Article XIV THE ALUMNI (1) Alumni shall be life-long members of the College, since St. John's College is a community not limited by geographical location or fixed periods of time. (2) The Alumni Association is the formal means by which alumni participate in the life of the College. Through the election of alumni members of the Board of Visitors and Governors, alumni share in the direction of that life. In these and other ways, alumni shall be given the opportunity to serve the College. (3) (4) (2) Amendments may be proposed at any regular meeting of either the Faculty in Annapolis or the Faculty in Santa Fe upon petition of not less than ten percent of the members on either campus. No such proposal shall be acted upon earlier than the next regular meeting of the Faculty, whether in Annapolis or in Santa Fe. A two-thirds vote of the entire Faculty in residence, including at least a simple majority vote of the Faculty in residence on each of the campuses, shall be required for approval and the amendment shall not become effective unless approved by the Board in the manner set forth in Section (1) above. (3) Every five years this Polity shall be reviewed by a committee of six, three to be elected by the Faculty on each campus. The report of the Committee shall be submitted to one regular Faculty meeting and voted upon at the next regular Faculty meeting. A two-thirds vote of the entire Faculty in residence, including at least a simple majority vote of the Faculty in residence on each of the campuses, shall be required for approval. Whatever action is thus recommended by the Faculty shall be submitted to the Board for final decision in the manner set forth in Section (1) above. The College shall cooperate with the Alumni Association to enable alumni to assist in providing services such as recruiting and interviewing prospective students, placing graduates in appropriate employment, and advising students concerning careers and admission to graduate and professional schools. The College, in cooperation with the Alumni Association, shall provide seminars and other appropriate educational activities in Annapolis, in Santa Fe, and in other places. Article XV Article XVII COMPLIANCE WITH LAW No provision of this Polity shall be construed to contravene any applicable federal or state law. If any provision is determined to contravene any such law, that provision shall be deemed not a part of this Polity, and this Polity' s remaining provisions shall remain in full force and effect. THE STAFF Article XVIII (1) Members of the Staff assist with the administration and maintenance of the College, performing duties necessary to its well-being. They are subject to appropriate Staff rules and regulations. (2) Members of the Staff on either campus may establish for themselves a Staff Council for the purpose of better communication and understanding of College policies as a benefit to the College as a whole. The Staff Council shall seek to establish and maintain formal channels of communication among the whole Staff and between the Staff and the appropriate College Officers. The Treasurer on each campus shall review Staff employment regulations with the Staff Council and discuss with them any changes proposed. (3) The Staff Council may establish such committees as it deems appropriate. MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE Effective January 1, 2000, there shall be a Management Committee for the college composed of the Presidents and Deans of both campuses. The Chair of the Management Committee will be appointed annually by the Board of Visitors and Governors. With the advice of the Committee, and in a collegial manner, the Chair shall exercise executive authority over the college as a whole with respect to matters assigned by the Board of Visitors and Governors. All other provisions of the Polity, including the duties of the Presidents and Deans, will remain in full force and effect, except as modified hereby. This provision will terminate in five years from the date of its adoption unless renewed by an affirmative vote of the Board of Visitors and Governors in the year prior to its expiration. Article XVI AMENDMENTS AND REVIEW ( 1) Amendments to this Polity may be proposed by a majority of the Polity Review Committee, or by a petition submitted by not fewer than ten percent of the members of the Board, or by the Faculty as provided for in section (2) below. Written notice of a proposed amendment must be provided to the Board and to the Faculty not less than 30 days prior to the date of the Board meeting at which the amendment is to be considered. The Faculty shall have the right to inform the Board in writing of its recommendation with respect to the proposed amendment by the time of that meeting. This Polity may be amended by a two-thirds vote of those members voting at any regular or special meeting of the Board, provided that the votes of no fewer than one-third of the members of the entire Board eligible to vote are in favor of such amendment. page 22 page 23 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Charter and Polity of the College Description An account of the resource Revised and amended editions of the St. John's College Charter and Polity.<br /><br />The College's first Charter and Polity was published as the <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/3768">September 1950</a> issue of the <em><a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/collections/show/37">Bulletin of St. John's College in Annapolis</a></em>. Revised and amended versions were published as individual issues of the <em>Bulletin</em> in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/3746">1951</a>, <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7844">1960</a>, <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7845">1963</a>, and <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7846">1965</a>. <br /><br />The Charter and Polity was published as a separate document in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7850">1955</a> and again from <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7851">1970</a> forward. The most recent version of the Charter and Polity is also available on the College's <a href="https://www.sjc.edu/about/leadership/board-visitors-governors/charter-polity">website</a>. <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Items in the Charter and Polity of the College Collection" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?tags=Charter+and+Polity&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate">Items in the Charter and Polity of the College Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data PDF Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 14 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Charter and Polity of the College, November 1999 Description An account of the resource Charter and Polity of the College, amended and restated November 1999. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Santa Fe, NM Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999-11 Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Subject The topic of the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Legal instruments Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Charter_and_Polity_1999November Charter and Polity https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/ad7f3ff425b00009ae91aa35c9caaef1.pdf 1f81838fe297a0fd1cba2a2094992e4b PDF Text Text Charter and Polity of the College ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND ~ SANTA FE, NEW MEXICO Amended and Restated April 2010 Founded as King William’s School, 1696 Chartered as St. John’s College, 1784 �Since this Polity can be amended between printings, the current official Polity is kept in the offices of the Presidents of St. John's College. HISTORY St. John's College was founded in 1696 as King William's School in accordance with a Petitionary Act for free-schools of the General Assembly of the Colony of Maryland. Following the Revolutionary War, the General Assembly of the new State of Maryland granted a Charter to St. John's College pursuant to and as a part of Chapter 37 of the Laws of Maryland of 1784. This Charter was subsequently amended by the General Assembly through Resolution No. 41 of 1832. The Visitors and Governors of St. John's College in 1950 revised the Charter to eliminate extraneous and obsolete matter and to make certain other amendments consistent with present requirements and conditions. It was the opinion of the Attorney General of Maryland that the original Charter of the College was subject to the general Corporation Laws of Maryland and might accordingly be amended by the Visitors and Governors, pursuant to these laws, without legislative action by the General Assembly. Subsequent amendments were made in 1961, in 1963, in 1965, in 1970, and in 1975. When the decision was reached to establish a second St. John's College in Santa Fe, New Mexico, amendments were made to the Charter to authorize branches or extensions of the College. The Charter was then filed with the Corporations Commission of the State of New Mexico as a foreign corporation. The College was thus empowered to grant degrees in New Mexico under the provisions of its Maryland Charter. A Polity for the College was first suggested at a faculty meeting in 1943 by the Dean. A faculty committee was elected and drafted a Polity, which was then promulgated by the President. In April 1949 the Faculty elected a committee to revise the Polity. The resulting document was approved by the Faculty on April 9, 1950, and was adopted by the Board of Visitors and Governors on July 8, 1950. Subsequent quinquennial reviews were made by elected faculty committees, and desired amendments were recommended by the Faculty to the Board of Visitors and Governors. The Polity was thus amended at regular meetings of the Board held on May 14, 1955; May 21, 1960; May 15, 1965; June 6, 1970; April 19, 1975; January 16, 1982; April 19, 1986; and October 19, 1991. Other amendments were adopted by the Board at regular meetings on February 22 and December 9, 1961; February 23 and September 28, 1963; October 3, 1970; February 18, 1972; October 25, 1975; January 24, 1976; November 6, 1982; July 21, 1984; April 20, 1985; October 25, 1986; April 11, 1987; October 19, 1991; July 18, 1992; April 17, 1993; April 22, 1995; April 19, 1996; April 24, 1999, and November 6, 1999; January 27, 2001, April 26, 2003; April 24, 2004; January 27, 2006; April 22, 2006; April 25, 2009; and April 24, 2010. 1 �CHARTER OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE WHEREAS, institutions for the liberal education of youth in the principles of virtue, knowledge and useful literature are of the highest benefit to society, in order to train up and perpetuate a succession of able and honest men for discharging the various offices and duties of life, both civil and religious, with usefulness and reputation, and such institutions of learning have accordingly been promoted and encouraged by the wisest and best regulated States; And whereas, it appears to this General Assembly that many public spirited individuals, from an earnest desire to promote the founding a college or seminary of learning on the Western Shore of this State have subscribed and procured subscriptions to a considerable amount, and there is reason to believe that very large additions will be obtained to the same throughout the different counties of the said Shore, if they were made capable in law to receive and apply the same towards founding and carrying on a college or general seminary of learning with such salutary plan and with such legislative assistance and direction as the General Assembly might think fit, and this General Assembly, highly approving those generous exertions of individuals, are desirous to embrace the present favorable occasion of peace and prosperity for making lasting provision for the encouragement and advancement of all useful knowledge and literature through every part of this State; BE IT ENACTED: II. That a college or general seminary of learning by the name of "St. John's College" be established on the said Western Shore upon the following fundamental and inviolable principles; namely, first, the said college shall be founded and maintained forever upon a most liberal plan for the benefit of youth of every religious denomination, who shall be freely admitted to equal privileges and advantages of education and to all the literary honors of the college, according to their merit without requiring or enforcing any religious or civil test, or urging their attendance upon any particular religious worship or service other than what they have been educated in or have the consent and approbation of their parents or guardians to attend; nor shall any preference be given in the choice of a Principal, Vice-Principal or other Professor, Master or Tutor in said college on account of his particular religious profession, having regard solely to his moral character and literary abilities and other necessary qualifications to fill the place for which he shall be chosen. IV. That the governing body or board of said College shall consist of not more than forty-nine nor less than thirteen Visitors and Governors, to be chosen and to hold office in such manner as the said Visitors and Governors may determine and prescribe by their fundamental ordinances; provided, however, that the Governors of the States of Maryland and New Mexico shall act ex officio as two of the total number of Visitors and Governors of said college during their respective terms in said offices; and that the said Visitors and Governors and their successors duly chosen shall be and are hereby declared to be one community, corporation and body politic to have continuance forever by the name of and by the same name they shall have perpetual succession. 2 �ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE VII. That if the City of Annapolis should be fixed upon as a proper place for establishing the said intended college, this General Assembly give and grant, and upon that condition do hereby give and grant to the Visitors and Governors of the said College by the name of "The Visitors and Governors of Saint John's College in the State of Maryland," and their successors all that four acres within the City of Annapolis purchased for the use by the public and conveyed on the 2nd day of October, 1744, by Stephen Bordley, Esq., to Thos. Bladen, Esq., then Governor, to have and to hold the said four acres of land with the appurtenances to the said Visitors and Governors and their successors for the only use, benefit and behoof of the said college and seminary of universal learning forever. VIII. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors by the same name shall be able and capable in law to purchase, have and enjoy to them and their successors in fee, or for any other less estate or estates, any lands, tenements, rents, annuities, pensions or other hereditaments by the gift, grant, bargain, sale, alienation, enfeoffment, release, confirmation, or devise of any person or persons, bodies politic or corporate capable to make the same, and such lands, tenements, rents, annuities, pensions or other hereditaments or any less estates, rights or interests of or in the same at their pleasure to grant, alien, sell and transfer in such manner and form as they shall think meet and convenient for the furtherance of the said college; And also that they may take and receive any sum or sums of money, and any kind, manner or portion of goods and chattels that shall be given, sold or bequeathed to them by any person or persons, bodies politic or corporate capable to make a gift, sale or bequest thereof and employ the same towards erecting, setting up and maintaining the said college in such manner as they shall judge most necessary and convenient for the instruction, improvement and education of youth in the vernacular and learned languages, and generally in any kind of literature, arts and sciences, which they shall think proper to be taught for training up good, useful and accomplished men for the service of their country, in church and state. IX. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors by the name aforesaid shall be able in law to sue and be sued, plead and be impleadable in any court or courts, before any judge, judges, or justices within this State and elsewhere in all and all manner of suits, complaints, pleas, causes, matters and demands of whatsoever kind, nature or form they be and all and every other matter and thing therein to do in as full and effectual a manner as any other person or persons, bodies politic or corporate within this State or any of the United States of America in like cases may or can do. X. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors shall have full power and authority to have, make and use one common and public seal and likewise one privy seal with such devices and inscriptions as they shall think proper, and to ascertain, fix and regulate the uses of both seals, by their own laws and the same seals or either of them to change, break, alter and renew at their pleasure. XI. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors from time to time and at all times hereafter, forever, shall have full power and authority to constitute and appoint in such manner as they shall think best and most convenient, a principal, a vice-principal of the said college and 3 �professors with proper tutors and assistants for instructing the students and scholars of the said seminary in all the liberal arts and sciences, and in the ancient and modem tongues and languages; and the said principal, vice-principal and professors so constituted and appointed from time to time shall be known and distinguished forever as one learned body or faculty by the name of "The Principal, Vice-Principal and Professors of St. John's College"; and by that name shall be capable of exercising such powers and authorities as the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors shall by their ordinances think necessary to delegate to them for the instruction, discipline and government of the said seminary and of all the students, scholars, ministers and servants belonging to the same. XIV. That a majority of the said Visitors and Governors for the time being and duly assembled at any meeting upon due notice given to the whole body of Visitors and Governors shall have full power and authority to make fundamental ordinances for the government of the said college and the instruction of youth as aforesaid, and by these ordinances to appoint such a number of their own body not less than seven, as they may think proper for transacting all general and necessary business of the said seminary and making temporary rules for the government of the same; and also by the said fundamental ordinances to delegate to the principal, vice-principal and professors such powers and authorities as they may think best for the standing government of the said seminary and of the execution of the ordinances and rules of the same; provided always that they be not repugnant to the form of government of any law of this State. XV. And for animating and encouraging the students of said college to a laudable diligence, industry and progress in useful literature and science, be it enacted that the said Visitors and Governors and their successors shall by a written mandate under their privy seal and the hand of someone of the Visitors and Governors to be chosen annually as their President, according to the ordinance to be made for that purpose, have full power and authority to direct the principal, viceprincipal and professors to hold public commencements either on stated annual days, or occasionally as the future ordinances of the said seminary may direct and at such commencements to admit any of the students in the said college or any other persons meriting the same (whose names shall be severally inserted in the same mandate) to any degree or degrees in any of the faculties, arts and sciences and liberal professions to which persons are usually admitted in other colleges or universities in America or Europe; And it is hereby enacted that the principal, or in the case of his death or absence, the vice-principal, and in case of the death or absence of both, the senior professor who may be present, shall make out and sign with his name diplomas or certificates of the admission to such degree or degrees, which shall be sealed with the public or greater seal of the said corporation or college and delivered to the graduates as honorable and perpetual testimonials of such admission; which diplomas, if thought necessary for doing greater honor to such graduates, shall also be signed with the names of the different professors or as many of them as can conveniently sign the same; provided always that no student or students within the said college shall ever be admitted to any such degree or degrees, or have their name inserted in any mandate for a degree, until such student or students have been first duly examined, and thought worthy of the same. XVI. That the ordinances which shall be from time to time made by the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors with an account of their other proceedings and of the management of the estate and moneys committed to their trust, shall when required be laid 4 �before the General Assembly for their inspection and examination, but in case at any time hereafter through oversight, or otherwise through misapprehension and mistaken constructions of the powers, liberties and franchises in this Charter or Act of Incorporation granted, or intended to be granted, any ordinance should be made by the said corporation of Visitors and Governors or any matters done and transacted by the corporation contrary to the tenor hereof, it is enacted that although such ordinances, acts and doings shall in themselves be null and void, yet they shall not, however, in any courts of law, or by the General Assembly, be deemed, taken, interpreted or adjudged into an avoidance or forfeiture of this Charter and Act of Incorporation, but the same shall be and remain unhurt, inviolate and entire unto the said corporation of Visitors and Governors in perpetual succession; and all their acts conformable to the powers, true intent and meaning hereof shall be and remain in full force and validity, the nullity and avoidance of such illegal acts to the contrary in any wise notwithstanding. XVII. That this Charter and Act of Incorporation and every part thereof shall be good and available in all things in the law according to the true intent and meaning thereof, and shall be construed, reputed and adjudged in all cases most favorably on the behalf and for the best benefit and behoof of the said Visitors and Governors and their successors, so as most effectually to answer the valuable end of this Act of Incorporation towards the general advancement and promotion of useful knowledge, science and virtue. XVIII. That the College may establish and operate one or more branches in one or more states of the United States. 5 �Polity of St. John's College Preamble Education is the making of men and women out of children by bringing them into the world of inherited customs, intellectual traditions, and spiritual ties. Institutions of learning are set up for this purpose. Beyond this they should also seek to develop the moral and intellectual powers of their students to enable them to fulfill best their freely chosen tasks and thus to take their own responsible part in shaping the future. St. John's College is a community of learning committed to holding these ends constantly in sight and to seeking the best means of attaining them. St. John's College strives to illuminate the common heritage of humanity in a persisting study of the great documents in which that heritage can be found. It is concerned with the unity of knowledge, an understanding of the great issues, and the moral foundations on which men and women may conduct their lives. To provide proper conditions for the pursuit of these ends, we, the Board of Visitors and Governors, after consultation with the Faculty, do ordain and establish this Polity for St. John's College. Article I THE COLLEGE (1) St. John's College is by its Charter a legal entity, carrying on its functions from its campuses in Annapolis, Maryland, and in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Under the Charter of the College, all power, authority, and responsibility pertaining to the College are vested in the Visitors and Governors. (2) The College consists of the following: The Board of Visitors and Governors, the Faculty, the Graduate and Undergraduate Students, the Alumni and the Staff, and other members who may be named from time to time by the Board of Visitors and Governors. (3) Under the Charter, "the said Visitors and Governors, and their successors, from time to time, and at all times hereafter, forever, shall have full power and authority to constitute and appoint, in such manner as they shall think best and most convenient, a principal and viceprincipal of the said College, and professors, with proper tutors and assistants, for instructing the students and scholars of the said seminary in all the liberal arts and sciences, and in the ancient and modern tongues and languages; and the said principal, vice-principal, and professors, so constituted and appointed from time to time shall be known and distinguished forever as one learned body or faculty, by the name of 'The Principal, Vice-Principal, and Professors of St. John's College;' and by that name shall be capable of exercising such powers and authorities as the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors shall by their ordinances think necessary to delegate to them for the instruction, discipline, and government of the said seminary and of all the students, scholars, ministers and servants belonging to the same." 6 �(a) The "principal" shall be the Presidents. When 'President' is used in this Polity it shall mean: (i) with respect to membership on the Board of Visitors and Governors, in the Faculty, on committees of the Board, and sitting ex officio with the Instruction Committee, and for presentation of, and response to, the Statement of Educational Policy and Program (Article V (l)(c)), the President of the Annapolis campus and the President of the Santa Fe campus; (ii) with respect to membership on committees or sitting ex officio with committees, and actions or procedures relating to one campus, the President of that campus; (iii) with respect to actions under Article II (12)(b) or actions or procedures involving the entire College under Article X (l)(a)(i) and Article X (l)(a)(iii), either President. (b) The "vice-principal" shall be the Dean who is serving as the Chair of the Instruction Committee. (c) There shall be a Dean of St. John's College in Annapolis and a Dean of St. John's College in Santa Fe. (d) The "professors, tutors and assistants" shall bear the title Tutor or Tutor Emeritus. Tutors who have completed their tenure appointments shall be Tutors Emeriti. (e) There shall be Vice-Presidents for College Advancement and Treasurers. (f) There shall be Associate members of the Faculty, hereinafter called Associates, as provided in Article VIII. (g) The "one learned body or faculty," composed of the President, the Deans, the other Tutors, the Tutors Emeriti, the Vice-Presidents for College Advancement, the Treasurers, and the Associates, shall bear the title the Faculty of St. John's College. (h) All who have formally matriculated, are at the present enrolled, and are in good standing shall be called Students of St. John's College. (i) The Directors and the Tutors of the Graduate Institute shall be called the Faculty of the Graduate Institute. (j) All who have been awarded a degree by the College shall be called Alumni. In addition, all who have completed at least one semester of undergraduate study or at least one segment of Graduate Institute study, but who are not currently enrolled, shall be called Alumni either a) in the case of undergraduate students, when the class with which they matriculated has graduated, or b) in the case of Graduate Institute students, at the end of three full sessions of the Graduate Institute after the one in which they last enrolled. All 7 �who have been designated as honorary members of the Alumni Association of St. John’s College shall be called Alumni. All who have ever been Alumni shall continue to be. (k) The Staff shall consist of all persons appointed by the President who are not members of the Faculty of St. John's College or the Faculty of the Graduate Institute. (l) There shall be no discrimination at St. John's College in appointments, conditions of employment, admissions, educational policy, financial aid programs, athletics, or other activities, on the basis of race, religion, age, sex, national origin, color, disability and/or handicap, sexual orientation, or other characteristic protected by any applicable federal, state or local law. Article II VISITORS AND GOVERNORS (1) Qualifications for Membership. Persons shall be eligible for membership on the Board of Visitors and Governors who are concerned for the maintenance, progress, and vitality of St. John's College's educational program and who are willing and able to discharge the responsibilities of trusteeship with devotion and energy. (2) Members. The Board of Visitors and Governors shall consist of not more than sixty members, comprising the Presidents, the Deans, the Governors of Maryland and New Mexico, ex officio, and fifty-four members, of whom forty-five shall be elected by the entire Board and nine shall be elected by the Alumni of the College, in the manner and for the terms hereinafter provided. In recognition of meritorious service to the College, Visitors Emeriti may be elected to the Board who may attend all meetings of the Board, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. Retired members of the Board who have served six (6) terms on the Board as members in good standing shall be designated as Honorary Board Members upon election by the Board. Honorary Board Members will receive minutes of the Plenary Sessions of the Board, may, as a guest, attend the Plenary Sessions of all regular meetings of the Board, and may be asked to assist on Board Committees. (3) Elections by the Board. At each annual meeting, the Board shall elect a class of no more than fifteen members for a term of three years, to succeed those members whose term expires at the conclusion of said meeting. Those members elected shall begin their term upon the conclusion of the meeting of their election. The procedure for nomination and election shall be as follows: There shall be a Nominating Committee of seven members of the Board appointed by the Chair. The Chair and the Presidents shall sit with the committee, ex officio, when nominations to Board membership are being considered. The Nominating Committee shall recommend to each member of the Board in writing, not later than thirty days prior to the annual meeting at which the election is to be held, at least one candidate for each of the places to be filled by such election, including each position as an officer of the Board. Additional nominations may be made in writing, addressed to the Chair, signed by at least 8 �five members of the Board, prior to the date above provided for the report of the Nominating Committee, and any such additional nominations shall be reported to the Board by the Committee at the time of its report. Voting on nominations at annual meetings may be by ballot, each member present to vote for fifteen of the said nominees. In case the balloting results in a tie for one or more positions, the Board shall determine the procedure to resolve the tie. No nominee for member or officer of the Board shall be deemed elected who has not received the affirmative votes of at least a majority of the members present at the meeting. If there should be fewer than fifteen members in any class prior to the end of the term for such class, any vacancy may be filled pursuant to the procedure provided above for regular elections, except that the election may take place at any regular meeting. A member elected to fill any such vacancy shall hold office for the remainder of the term of the class in which such vacancy occurred. (4) Elections by the Alumni. Each year in the spring, three alumni shall be elected to membership for a term of three years, in such manner that there shall be nine members of the Board elected by the alumni, consisting of three classes of three members each. Outgoing members so elected shall continue to serve until their successors’ term of office begins. Such elections shall be conducted in accordance with the By-laws of the Alumni Association of St. John’s College. In the event that for any reason there should be fewer than three members so elected in any class prior to the end of the term of that class, the vacancy shall be filled by the Alumni Association of St. John’s College. Newly elected alumni shall begin their term immediately following the annual meeting of the Board. (5) Faculty Representation at Board Meetings. Three members of the Faculty shall be elected by the Faculty on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on the campus to which they belong, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (6) Student Representation at Board Meetings. Two students shall be elected by the Students on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on the campus to which they belong, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (7) Graduate Institute Director Representation at Board Meetings. Each Director of the Graduate Institute may attend all regular sessions of the Board on such Director’s campus, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (8) Graduate Institute Student Representation at Board Meetings. A student of the Graduate Institute shall be elected by the Students of the Graduate Institute on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on such student’s campus, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. 9 �(9) Alumni Association Representation at Board Meetings. The President of the Alumni Association shall be invited to attend all regular sessions of the Board, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (10) Staff Representation at Board Meetings. The Staff on each campus shall be invited to send two representatives to all regular sessions of the Board at that campus, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (11) Reelection. A member of the Board elected by the Board or by the Alumni may be elected for not more than two consecutive terms, but may, after a second consecutive term, be reelected to membership at the annual meeting in the year following the expiration of the member's second term. Notwithstanding the foregoing, in extraordinary circumstances, the Nominating Committee may recommend the reelection of the Chair of the Board for up to two additional consecutive terms. (12) Meetings of the Board. (a) The Board shall hold at least three regular meetings annually, at least one of which shall be held on each campus. The spring meeting shall be called the annual meeting. The time and place of regular meetings shall be determined by the Chair, in consultation with the President, and notice of regular meetings shall be given not less than fifteen days prior to such meetings. (b) Special meetings of the Board may be called by the President, the Chair, the Executive Committee, or any ten members of the Board, not less than seven days after the dispatch of written, faxed, or e-mail notice of the time, place, and purposes of the meeting. Such notice may be dispensed with if waived in writing by all members of the Board either before or after the meeting. (c) Any business may be conducted at a regular meeting without specific notice of such business (except that which is required by law or as provided herein as to elections and amendments), but no business shall be conducted at any special meeting unless notice of such business has been given, or has been waived as above provided. (d) One third of the members of the Board shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. (e) The Board in regular session is open to elected and ex officio members, to Visitors Emeriti, to Honorary Board Members as guests, to Associates invited by the President, and to official representatives of the Faculty, Students, Graduate Institute, Alumni Association and Staff. Attendance at Executive sessions shall be limited to voting members and Visitors Emeriti. Public sessions shall be open without restriction. The Chair of the Board, in consultation with the President, shall determine whether any meeting or portion of a meeting shall be in regular, executive, or public session. 10 �(13) Officers of the Board. At each annual meeting the Board shall elect a Chair, two ViceChairs, and a Secretary, to hold office until the next annual meeting or until their successors are elected. Vacancies in any such offices may be filled at any regular meeting, or any special meeting called for that purpose. Such officers shall perform the customary duties of such offices, and such other duties as the Board may from time to time direct. (14) Committees of the Board. (a) Executive Committee. The Chair, the Vice-Chairs, the Secretary, the Presidents, the Deans, and four other members chosen annually by the Board at the annual meeting shall comprise the Executive Committee of the Board. In intervals between meetings of the Board, the Executive Committee may act for the Board, except in those matters expressly delegated to some other committee, person, or persons. Seven members of the Executive Committee present at a meeting shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. The Executive Committee shall determine the compensation of the Vice Presidents and Treasurers, upon receiving the recommendations of the Compensation Review Committee. The Executive Committee shall recommend to the Board the compensation of the Presidents, upon receiving the recommendations of the Compensation Review Committee. (b) Presidential Search Committee. There shall be a Presidential Search Committee to recommend the appointment of a President as provided in Article IV(2). (c) Nominating Committee. There shall be a nominating Committee for membership of the Board and for officers of the Board as provided in Article II(3). (d) Visiting Committee. There shall be a Visiting Committee, including a Chair, appointed by the Chair of the Board. The Visiting Committee shall meet at least once annually with the Instruction Committee on each campus. The Visiting Committee shall discuss the Statement of Educational Policy and Program of the Chair of the Instruction Committee and become acquainted with the aims of the College and how they are being realized. (e) Finance Committee. There shall be a Finance Committee consisting of the Chair, the Presidents, and the Treasurers of the College, ex officio, and such additional members as may be appointed by the Chair of the Board. The Chair of the Board shall appoint one of the members to be the Chair of the Committee. The Finance Committee shall have the following powers and duties: (i) The Finance Committee shall, after consultation with the Investment Committee, make recommendations to the Board concerning the appropriate policies for annual or periodic expenditures from each of the college's endowments. (ii) The Finance Committee shall review the proposed annual budgets of the College prior to their presentation for approval by the Board and shall make recommendations to the Board with respect to the budgets at the meeting at which they are presented. 11 �(iii) The Finance Committee shall study, and periodically advise the Board with respect to, the financial business policies and practices of the College, and shall make such special studies and reports as the Board may from time to time request. (f) Audit Committee. There shall be an Audit Committee, including a Chair, appointed by the Chair of the Board. The Treasurers shall serve as non-voting Staff to the committee. (i) The Committee shall review in detail the annual report of the independent auditors and discuss audit findings with the auditors, unattended by employees of the College. (ii) The Committee shall meet with representatives of the independent auditors to the next audit to discuss scope and procedures and any other matters requiring special attention. (iii) The Committee shall discuss with College personnel any corrective action required as a result of the audit report. (iv) The Committee shall recommend to the Board the appointment or reappointment of independent auditors to conduct the audit for the next fiscal year. (v) The Committee shall report to the Board annually on its review of the audit and shall bring to the attention of the Board any matters related thereto requiring Board action. (g) Compensation Review Committee. There shall be a Compensation Review Committee, including a Chair, appointed by the Chair of the Board. (i) The Committee shall recommend to the Board policies for direct and indirect compensation of Tutors, Associate members of the Faculty, other Faculty members, and Staff at the College. It shall annually review the compensation policies and performance with respect to them and report the findings of this review to the Board. (ii) The Committee shall recommend to the Executive Committee the compensation of the Presidents, Vice-Presidents for College Advancement, and Treasurers of the College (iii) In matters of policy and compensation, the Committee shall consult with the Presidents and the Chair of the Finance Committee. (h) Polity Review Committee. There shall be a Polity Review Committee appointed by the Chair every fifth year. The Chair of the Board shall appoint one of the members to be Chair of the Committee. The Committee shall receive the report of the Faculty Committee and after appropriate study shall make recommendations to the Board for consideration at the annual meeting when the final review of the Polity is consummated. The respective Chairs of the Board and Faculty Review Committees shall make such arrangements as they deem appropriate for joint consultation prior to and after the 12 �adoption of the report by the Faculty. (i) Investment Committee. There shall be an Investment Committee consisting of at least one member of the Finance Committee (appointed by the Chair of the Board), the Treasurers of the college, ex officio, and such additional members as may be appointed by the Chair. The Chair of the Board shall appoint one of the members to be Chair of the Committee. The Investment Committee shall have the following powers and duties: (i) The Investment Committee shall have full power to direct the investment and reinvestment of all funds of the College, including endowment and restricted funds, and the proper officers of the Board and the College are authorized to carry out all written directions, signed by the Chair of the Committee, with respect to such investments and reinvestments. The Committee shall report at each regular meeting any action taken hereunder since the previous meeting. (ii) The Committee shall advise the Finance Committee on the question of the appropriate endowment spending policies for the College, and shall consult with the Finance Committee on any matter that it judges may affect the financial condition of the College that may need action by the Finance Committee. (j) Buildings and Grounds Committee. There shall be a Buildings and Grounds Committee appointed by the Chair of the Board. The Committee shall meet with the Treasurers on each campus and review issues and plans relating to the maintenance and development of the campuses. Two members shall be named, by the Chair of the Board, to serve as Chairs of the subcommittees for each campus, with one to be designated as Chair of the full Committee. (k) Development Committee. There shall be a Development Committee consisting of the Vice Presidents for College Advancement, ex officio, and such additional members as may be appointed by the Chair of the Board, who shall appoint one member to be Chair of the Committee. The Development Committee shall have the following powers and duties: i. The Committee shall review all policies and programs for fund raising on each campus and report on same. ii. The Committee shall advise the Board with respect to the need for capital campaigns or other special fund-raising projects. iii. The Committee shall be responsible for the promotion of full Board support for the Annual Campaigns. iv. At the discretion of the Chair of the Board, the Committee may be suspended during the pendency of a capital campaign. 13 �(l) Alumni Relations Committee. There shall be an Alumni Relations Committee consisting of the President of the Alumni Association, the Vice Presidents for College Advancement, ex officio, and such additional members as may be appointed by the Chair of the Board. The Chair of the Board shall appoint one of the Alumni-elected Board members to serve as Chair of the Committee. The Committee shall review all policies and programs for alumni and report on same. (m) Other Committees. The Chair may appoint such other standing or special committees of the Board as the Chair deems desirable or which the Board may request. (n) Former members of the Board and Visitors Emeriti may be appointed by and at the discretion of the Chair to serve on committees. (o) Except for the Presidential Search Committee and the Polity Review Committee, committee appointments shall be made annually. Members of the Committees serve until their successors have been appointed. (p) Any member of the Board may, without invitation, attend any Board committee meeting, except those of the Presidential Search, Nominating and Executive Committees, but without vote. (q) Whenever a Capital Campaign is in progress, its Chair shall be an ex-officio voting member of the Finance and Executive Committees. (15) Execution of Contracts, Transfer of Securities, Etc. All contracts of $50,000 or more, notes, deeds, leases, mortgages, releases, bonds for security or indemnity, negotiable instruments, stock certificates, transfers, and powers, and like papers and documents on behalf of the College or the Endowment Funds shall be executed by two persons, of whom one shall be the President, the Chair, or a Vice-Chair, and of whom the other shall be the Secretary of the Board or the Treasurer of the campus concerned. (16) Signing of checks, drafts, etc. All checks, drafts, acceptances, and similar orders for the payment of money on behalf of the College may be signed by the same persons authorized to execute contracts, etc., pursuant to Section (15) hereof, but may also be signed by such persons, and in such manner, as the Board may from time to time direct by appropriate resolution. (17) The College shall indemnify, to the full extent permitted by law, any current or former member of the Board or officer of the College or any person who, while a member of the Board or an officer of the College, may have served at the College’s request as a director, officer, partner or trustee of another entity, against any judgments, penalties, fines, settlements and reasonable expenses actually and necessarily incurred by him or her in connection with the defense of any action, suit or proceeding to which he or she is made a party by reason of being or having been such member of the Board or officer of the College. 14 �Article III THE FACULTY The Visitors and Governors by these ordinances hereby delegate to the Faculty of St. John's College the President, the Deans, the other Tutors, the Tutors Emeriti, the Vice-Presidents for College Advancement, the Treasurers, and the Associates "powers and authorities" for the "instruction, discipline, and government" of the College. Article IV THE FACULTY: THE PRESIDENT (1) There shall be a President for the Annapolis campus and a President for the Santa Fe campus, each appointed as provided in Article IV (2). There is delegated to each President by the Visitors and Governors executive responsibility and authority for the instruction, discipline, and government of the President’s campus, and the President, in turn, may delegate such authority. In the interest of the orderly conduct of business and of maintaining and promoting the unity of the College, the Presidents shall regularly consult and communicate with each other and, as appropriate, with other College officials, on matters of common concern. (2) The President shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of a Committee composed of five members of the Board of Visitors and Governors appointed by the Chair of the Board, at least one of whom is an alumnus, the Deans, and one Tutor having tenure from each campus elected by the Faculty on that campus. This Committee shall be known as the Presidential Search Committee. It shall consult with the continuing President in a regular and timely fashion. Prior to making its final recommendation, it shall, on both campuses, consult with all other appropriate persons and shall arrange for the final candidates to meet with the Faculty and the Instruction Committee. (3) The President shall concurrently be a Tutor, but the provisions of Article VI need not apply. (4) The President and persons to whom the President delegates authority shall consult with the Deans, other appropriate persons, and appropriate Faculty committees in matters of policy, initiation of programs, and setting of priorities affecting the general welfare of the College. (5) There shall be a Financial Committee on each campus consisting of the President as Chair, the Dean and Treasurer of the campus, and other members the President may appoint. It will review proposed budgets prior to their being presented to the Finance Committee of the Board. It will also meet prior to Board meetings to review performance in the fiscal year to date and emerging budgetary strengths and weaknesses. 15 �(6) The President shall appoint, or delegate the power to appoint, other committees as may be necessary for the carrying out of the President’s duties for which no provision is made under Article IX. (7) If in the judgment of the Board of Visitors and Governors, the College is facing a financial exigency at either or both of its campuses which could call for a reduction in the number of Faculty positions, both Presidents shall immediately advise the Faculty of the nature and extent of the financial difficulty and consult with them concerning the best way to address the situation. The Faculty may then make a formal recommendation to the Presidents on ways to meet the problem, or, if the Faculty fails so to act, the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall propose a plan to the Presidents. The Presidents shall jointly then determine a plan which specifies a preferred course of action to be taken. All necessary steps must be taken in timely fashion as prescribed by the Board. Nothing herein provided shall limit the power of the Board to act otherwise in the event of need to reduce or eliminate Faculty positions. Article V THE FACULTY: THE CHAIR OF THE INSTRUCTION COMMITTEE AND THE DEANS (1) The Chair of the Instruction Committee. (a) There is delegated to the Chair of the Instruction Committee responsibility and authority for the organization of the program of instruction in the liberal arts that is followed by the Tutors and the Students. (b) The Deans shall serve alternately, for a term of one year, as Chair of the Instruction Committee. (c) Each year the Chair of the Instruction Committee shall, after consultation with the Instruction Committee on the Chair’s campus, and after discussion with the Instruction Committee of the College, submit a Statement of Educational Policy and Program to the Faculty as a whole for discussion. The Presidents shall present the Statement, together with an account of the Faculty discussion of it, and their responses to it, as a report to the Board of Visitors and Governors for its consideration. (d) Should the Chair of the Instruction Committee or the Chair of the Board of Visitors and Governors deem it appropriate, the Chair of the Instruction Committee shall report to the Board on instructional matters, and shall respond to such questions as the Board, through its Chair, may ask. (2) The Deans. (a) There is delegated to the Deans on their respective campuses responsibility and authority for the supervision of the program of instruction and for the general welfare of the students and for whatever government of the students be necessary for the greatest 16 �possible attainment of aims of the program. Each Dean shall be the Chair of the Instruction Committee on such Dean’s campus. In carrying out the Dean’s duties, each Dean shall consult regularly with the President and with the Instruction Committee and the other appropriate Faculty committees on that campus. (b) The Deans shall be appointed for terms of five years from among the Tutors by the Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President after consultation with a special committee of seven, four from the campus for which the Dean is being chosen and three from the other campus, selected from among themselves by the Tutors having tenure. (c) A Dean shall be appointed from among the tutors who have themselves been appointed in accord with Article VI(3). If non-tenured, the appointee shall acquire tenure upon becoming Dean, in which case the provisions of Article VI(3)(a) regarding reappointment schedules shall not apply. (d) To assist them in carrying out their duties, the Deans shall recommend one or more Tutors to be appointed by the President with the title of Assistant Dean. (e) During the absence of the President from either campus, the Dean on that campus shall if necessary exercise the President's prerogative of final decision. (f) During the absence of either Dean from the campus a Tutor with tenure named by the Dean shall act for the Dean. (g) The Dean on each campus shall appoint such committees as may be necessary for the carrying out of the Dean’s duties for which no other provision is made. Article VI THE FACULTY: THE TUTORS (1) The primary responsibilities of the Tutors are to teach and to make themselves as competent as possible in all parts of the St. John's Program. (2) The Tutors shall have authority to recommend to the Visitors and Governors candidates for degrees of their respective campuses. (3) Appointment and Reappointment of Tutors. Tutors shall be appointed by the Visitors and Governors upon recommendation of the President in accordance with the recommendation of the Dean and the Instruction Committee on that campus where the Tutors so appointed shall teach. (a) The schedule of regular appointment of Tutors on each campus shall be either (i)(A) or (i)(B) below, to be decided by the President in accordance with the recommendation of 17 �the Dean and the Instruction Committee on that campus where the Tutors so appointed shall teach: (i)(A) New Tutors shall be appointed for one year unless they are appointed at mid-year, in which case the initial appointment shall be for a year and a half. First reappointments shall be for one year. Second and third reappointments shall be for two and three years respectively. (i)(B) New Tutors shall be appointed for two years unless they are appointed at midyear, in which case the initial appointment shall be for a year and a half. First and second reappointments shall be for two and three years respectively. (ii) A Tutor who has completed a three-year appointment must either be given a tenure appointment or not be reappointed as Tutor. A Tutor may, however, be given a tenure appointment as early as the conclusion of the first year of a three-year appointment. Procedures leading to a recommendation for an early tenure appointment shall be initiated by the Dean and Instruction Committee, but not without the consent of the appointee, and shall not prejudice subsequent consideration for a tenure appointment. Tenure appointments shall not continue beyond retirement. Tutors Emeriti shall retain their privileges and responsibilities in voting at Faculty meetings. (iii) Before making recommendations to the President on tenure appointments the Dean on each campus shall consult with the Instruction Committee on that campus, after seeking the advice of the Tutors on that campus. (iv) A Tutor, to be recommended for a tenure appointment, must have served full-time at the campus where the recommendation is to be made for the two years immediately preceding the year in which that recommendation is made, the provisions of (ii) above notwithstanding. In ordinary cases, these two years of service will be the second year of a two-year appointment and the first year of a three-year appointment. These requirements may be waived by the President on the recommendation of the Dean and Instruction Committee on that campus. (b) A non-tenure appointment as Tutor establishes the possibility, but not the presumption, of its renewal and the granting of a tenure appointment. Procedures for considering nontenure appointments differ from those for considering tenure appointments. Satisfaction of appointment criteria admits of degree. With each successive reappointment, the criteria are applied more rigorously. For a tenure appointment the application is especially strict. (c) For the purpose of temporary transfer between campuses, special appointments of one or two years may be granted to a Tutor in addition to his or her regular appointments. The Tutor may ask that such an appointment be counted as a regular appointment for the purpose of (a) above. In the case of a permanent transfer a Tutor may ask that years of service at the other campus be counted toward tenure according to the provisions of (a) above. Nevertheless, the provisions of (3)(a)(iv) prevail. 18 �(d) Special one-year appointments and reappointments may be given to Tutors who intend to teach on a part-time basis only. Such a Tutor may subsequently apply for and receive a regular appointment. Special part-time appointments may then be counted on a fractional basis toward eligibility for tenure, subject to the provisions of (3)(a)(iv). In establishing eligibility for sabbatical leave, special part-time appointments shall be computed proportionately. (e) Visiting Tutors may be appointed for a term or a year. (4) Notification. (a) A Tutor under consideration for a non-tenure appointment to begin in a certain calendar year shall be notified by the President no later than December 15th of the preceding calendar year whether reappointment will be recommended to the Board of Visitors and Governors. A Tutor who is reappointed shall be notified by the President by March 1st of the calendar year in which the new appointment is to begin. (b) A Tutor under consideration for a tenure appointment to begin in a certain calendar year shall be notified by the President no later than May 31st of the preceding calendar year whether the appointment will be recommended to the Board of Visitors and Governors. A Tutor who is appointed shall be notified by the President by July 31st of that same preceding year. (5) A Tutor may apply to the Instruction Committee of the College not later than January 15th for a transfer of campus for the next academic year. Transfers shall require approval of both Deans after consultation with their Instruction Committees. (6) (a) A Tutor’s appointment may be terminated by the Board of Visitors and Governors for one of the following reasons only: (i) failure or inability to perform teaching duties in a satisfactory manner, or (ii) moral turpitude. The President shall make such a recommendation to the Board of Visitors and Governors only with the concurrence of the Dean and the Instruction Committee of the campus concerned. Before making such a recommendation, the President shall advise the Tutor affected, and the Tutor shall have the right to be heard by the Instruction Committee or, at the Tutor’s option, by another committee to be designated by the President for this purpose. (b) Either Dean, with the approval of the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned, may recommend to the President that in the interest of instruction a Tutor be temporarily relieved of duties in whole or in part at any time. When such action is taken, the Tutor's salary shall be continued for the remainder of the current academic year. 19 �(7) The sabbatical leave program is designed to provide Tutors with an opportunity for study, rest, and renewal of spirit, in anticipation of future teaching. It is the objective of the program to grant all applications for sabbatical leave meeting the conditions for eligibility set out in (a) of this section. It is understood that Tutors on such leave will not undertake full-time remunerative employment elsewhere and will return to the College. (a) Eligibility for sabbatical leave shall be upon the following conditions: (i) A Tutor who has received a tenure appointment may apply for a full year of sabbatical leave at full salary, to be taken upon completion of the equivalent of seven full years of service to the College since the original appointment, or the equivalent of six full years of service since any previous sabbatical leave. (ii) Such a Tutor may apply for an earlier sabbatical leave of a full year at partial salary, or a partial year at full salary. The fractional salary or fractional year shall be determined by the number of years of teaching completed in relation to the prescribed total for either an initial or a subsequent sabbatical leave, as the case may be. In no case shall a Tutor be paid more than the Tutor’s regular salary. (iii) Upon completion of sabbatical leave, a Tutor is expected to return to the College for at least two more years. (b) If, in the judgment of the President, financial or academic needs at a campus should require that fewer sabbatical leaves be granted there in a given year than there are qualified applicants, and if the number that can be granted there should be smaller than one-sixth of the number of Tutors at that campus having tenure and not on full-time leave under the provisions of section (8) below, the President shall so notify the Board of Visitors and Governors and seek its approval for delaying a sabbatical leave for one or more of the applicants. (c) If in a year there are more qualified applicants for sabbatical leave at any one campus than there are leaves to be granted at that campus, then those members shall have precedence who meet the following conditions in the order set forth: (i) Those who have served for the greater number of years since their first appointment as Tutor or since their last sabbatical leave, whichever is more recent; (ii) Those whose service has been continuous throughout those years; (iii) Those whose last sabbatical leave was postponed because of the financial or academic needs of the College; (iv) Those who have seniority of appointment. When there is a conflict of precedence, the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned shall be consulted. 20 �(d) A Tutor eligible for sabbatical leave shall make application to the President before November 1st for leave to begin the following July 1st, and shall be informed of the action upon the application not later than January 1st. (8) The President, with the concurrence of the Dean after consultation with the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned, may grant leaves of absence to Tutors for a period of one year or less. At that time it shall be determined whether the leave shall be counted as service to the College with respect to eligibility for sabbatical leave and, if so, how. The decision with respect to a request for leave of absence shall be made in the light of the requirements both of the applicant Tutor and of the whole College. (a) Leave of absence may be renewed upon request but not more than twice in succession except in extraordinary circumstances. (b) A request for a leave of absence shall be submitted to the President as early as possible in the academic year before the year in which the leave is to be taken, but not later than January 15th of that year. Requests for leaves of absence may be withdrawn at any time prior to April 1st of the year in which the request is submitted. Requests for leaves of absence for the second semester must be submitted no later than October 15th. (c) Tutors on sabbatical leave or leave of absence remain members of the Faculty with the right of full participation in Faculty meetings and all other College exercises. Article VII THE FACULTY: THE VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR COLLEGE ADVANCEMENT AND THE TREASURERS (1) The Vice-Presidents for College Advancement shall be responsible to the President for the supervision and development of all programs in fund-raising, public relations, and alumni relations on their respective campuses. (2) The Vice-President for College Advancement on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President made after consultation with the Dean on that campus and a committee constituted by resolution of the Faculty on that campus. (3) The Treasurers shall have charge, on their respective campuses, under the supervision of the President, of all funds and property, and shall have authority to carry out fiscal and property transactions, and to receive and disburse funds, subject to the provisions of this Polity and other directions and arrangements pursuant thereto. (4) The Treasurer on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President made after consultation with the Dean on that campus 21 �and a committee constituted by resolution of the Faculty on that campus. (5) The Vice-Presidents for College Advancement and Treasurers may be appointed Tutors under the provisions of Article VI(3)(d). Article VIII THE FACULTY: THE ASSOCIATES (1) Associate members of the Faculty on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President in consultation with the Dean of that campus. On each campus, the President shall have ultimate executive authority over the Associates. (2) Associates may be appointed Tutors under the provisions of Article VI(3)(d). (3) The Associates on either campus may establish for themselves an Associates' Council for the purpose of considering College matters of concern to them and communicating with other members of the College. (4) The Associates' Councils may establish such committees as they deem appropriate. (5) There shall be the following Associates, as deemed necessary by the President on each campus, with the powers and responsibilities provided. (a) The Registrars. The Registrars shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses. They shall prepare and supervise the registration of students and shall be responsible for the academic records and schedules of students. (b) The Librarians. The Librarians shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the operation of the library. Appointments of professional members of the Library Staff shall be made upon the recommendation of the Librarian to the Dean on each campus. (c) The Director of Student Activities and the Director of Athletics. The Director of Student Activities and the Director of Athletics, as the case may be, shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for devising and directing programs of recreational activities. (d) The Directors of Admissions. The Directors of Admissions shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the annual enrollment of qualified freshmen. (e) The Directors of Alumni Activities. The Directors of Alumni Activities shall be responsible to the Vice-Presidents for College Advancement. Their primary duty is to enable the College and the Alumni Association to be of service to alumni. 22 �(f) The Directors of Financial Aid. The Directors of Financial Aid shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the administration of financial aid programs. (g) The Directors of Career Services. The Directors of Career Services shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for helping and counseling students with respect to graduate and professional schools and careers. (h) The Director of College Information Technology Services. The Director of College Information Technology Services shall be responsible to both Presidents for the development and management of information services college-wide. (i) The Directors of Laboratories. The Directors of Laboratories shall be responsible to the Dean, in consultation with the Laboratory archons, for training and directing the student laboratory assistants, designing experiments for the laboratory program, and purchasing and maintaining laboratory equipment. Article IX THE FACULTY: FACULTY COMMITTEES (1) College-wide Committees (a) The Instruction Committee (i) The Instruction Committee shares with its Chairs responsibility for the program of instruction of the College. It shall consist of twelve Tutors in addition to the Deans. The Presidents shall sit with the Committee ex officio. Six of the Tutors shall be elected from each campus of the College. The Instruction Committee shall meet annually. On each campus the members of the Instruction Committee and the Dean as Chair constitute the Instruction Committee of the College on that campus. The President sits ex officio with the Instruction Committee on each campus. (ii) Each of the members of the Instruction Committee shall serve for a term of three years, and the terms shall be arranged in such a way that each year the terms of two members at each campus shall expire. Terms begin and end the day following commencement exercises. Annually, and separately at each campus, the President with the Dean on his campus, after consulting with the Instruction Committee and seeking the advice of the other Tutors on that campus, shall at the last regular Faculty meeting on that campus nominate four Tutors of whom two shall be elected by the Tutors to membership on the Instruction Committee. The Faculty shall be informed of the names of the nominees prior to the meeting at which the election occurs. At the expiration of the three-year term a member of the Instruction Committee shall for one year be ineligible for reelection. 23 �(iii) If for any reason a member of the Instruction Committee is unable to serve for a part of his or her term, another Tutor shall be chosen to serve for that part of the term. For this purpose the President and the Dean, in consultation with the Instruction Committee on the campus where the vacancy occurs, shall nominate two Tutors of whom the Tutors shall elect one in a regular Faculty meeting. (iv) If the Instruction Committee resigns with the Deans on a matter of confidence and the resignations are accepted, the President, in consultation with the new Deans and after seeking the advice of the other Tutors, shall nominate nine Tutors for the six vacancies on each campus in such a manner that two out of each three nominees shall be elected by the Tutors for each of the three classes to fill the unexpired terms. (b) The Tutors' Compensation Committee (i) There shall be a Tutors' Compensation Committee of six Tutors, three to be elected by the Tutors on each campus, and the chair shall annually alternate between campuses. The Committee shall advise the President concerning Tutors' compensation and related matters; it shall make annual reviews of the College's statement of Tutors' salaries and other compensation of Tutors and report to the Tutors and the President recommendations consequent upon the review. (ii) Members of the Committee shall be elected annually on each campus for terms of three years in such a manner that the term of one member on each campus terminates each year. The Tutors' Compensation Committee on each campus shall provide the Tutors on that campus with two nominations for each vacancy on the Committee on that campus. Additional nominations may be made at the Faculty meeting when election shall be made. (2) Campus-specific Committees (a) The Campus Planning Committees. The Faculty on each campus shall elect five of its members as a Campus Planning Committee. Two members shall be elected to the Committee annually except in every third year, when one member shall be chosen. The President, the Dean, one of the Assistant Deans, and the Treasurer on each campus shall sit ex officio with the Committee on that campus. It shall be the duty of the respective committees to advise the President on the construction of new buildings, the renovation of old buildings, landscaping of grounds, and all matters relating to the maintenance and development of the campus. (b) The Library Committees. The President on each campus, in consultation with the Librarian and the Dean, shall appoint three Tutors on each campus to serve as a Library Committee. The President, the Dean, and the Librarian shall themselves be ex officio members of the Committee, and the Librarian shall serve as Chair. It shall be the duty of the Library Committees to assist the Librarians in making the Libraries 24 �serve the ends of the College and its program; it shall be their duty to advise the Librarians in regard to Library policy and acquisitions. (c) The Information Technology Committees. The Dean on each campus shall appoint three Tutors to serve as an Information Technology Committee, one of whom shall serve as Chair. Each Tutor shall serve a three-year term. The Dean, the Director of College Information Technology Services, and the Librarian shall be ex officio members. It shall be the duty of the Information Technology Committees to advise the Director of College Information Technology Services in regard to the needs of the College and its Program. (d) The Prize Committees. Every three years the President shall appoint Tutors on each campus to supervise the awarding of prizes on the respective campuses. The Committees shall have full authority to decide what prizes shall be awarded and to name the recipients of the prizes. (e) The Fellowship Committees. On each campus there shall be a Fellowship Committee appointed by the President. It shall be the duty of this Committee to inform students of fellowships for which they may be eligible, to assist them in applying for fellowships, and to act on behalf of the College in any matter relating to application for fellowships. (f) Other Committees. The Faculty on each campus shall have authority to elect, or to request the President to appoint, additional committees that may from time to time become necessary. Article X THE FACULTY: FACULTY PROCEDURE (1) Procedure for Instructional Proposals. (a) (i) Any proposal concerning matters of instruction that may affect the College as a whole shall originate with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on either campus. A decision as to whether a proposal is college-wide or campus-specific shall be made by the Deans and Instruction Committee of the College. They shall make this decision after notifying the Faculty on both campuses and inviting their comment. Written statements of college-wide instructional proposals shall be distributed to the Faculty at least two weeks before the Faculty meeting at which they are to be presented; the proposal shall be presented to the whole Faculty by the Chair of the Instruction Committee, either in person or through the other Dean. If, after full discussion of any proposal so presented, there be no objection on the part of any Tutor, the measure stands approved and becomes effective as of the date specified therefore. If, after full discussion, a Tutor objects to the proposal and holds to the 25 �objection, the proposal shall be submitted to vote of the Tutors at special Faculty meetings called by the Presidents within a month. Any objections that have been made and held to and submitted in writing shall be transmitted immediately in writing to the whole faculty. Any objections that have been made and held to but not submitted in writing shall be reported immediately in writing to the whole Faculty. If, after discussion, any objection has been made and held to, the Presidents, in calling special Faculty meetings, shall report the statement of the Chair of the Instruction and the Dean on the other campus as to whether it be a matter of confidence; and in submitting the proposal to vote, the Chair of the Instruction Committee and the Dean on the other campus shall, at the special Faculty meetings, repeat their statement as to whether it be a matter of confidence. The vote may then be taken and tallied by the Presidents in such a fashion that the Tutors shall have recorded their decision acting as a whole. If the proposal be one that the Chair of the Instruction Committee and the other Dean have declared a matter of confidence and if it be defeated by majority vote, the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall immediately resign. If it be passed by majority vote, it shall become effective as of the date specified therefore. For the confidence procedure a quorum shall consist of three-fourths of all resident Tutors on each campus. (ii) Any instructional proposal that has been deemed campus-specific shall be subject to the procedure set forth above, except that, if an objection is made and held to on either campus, voting shall proceed only on the campus were the proposal is intended to be put into effect. Any objections that have been made and held to and submitted in writing on the other campus shall be transmitted immediately to the voting Faculty. Any objections that have been made and held to but not submitted in writing shall be reported immediately in writing to the voting Faculty. If the confidence procedure is invoked, it shall be only by the Dean on the voting campus, and it shall affect the Dean and the Instruction Committee only on that campus. (iii) The President may refuse to accept the resignation of the Deans or the Instruction Committee, any or all of them, whenever in the judgment of the President such resignation would be detrimental to the proper functioning of the College; provided, however, that if any six or more Tutors shall petition the Visitors and Governors, the latter shall review the President's decision within four weeks, during which time the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall continue in office. (iv) In the event that the proposal be defeated and the resignations be accepted, the President shall proceed to the choice of new Deans in accordance with the provisions of Article V (2)(b). (b) Upon either a petition of not less than one-tenth of the Tutors on either campus or a request from the President, the Dean and Instruction Committee on that campus shall consider any recommendation concerning instruction and shall report to the Faculty 26 �within one year their proposal concerning it. They shall decide whether their proposal is a college-wide or campus-specific proposal, and the procedure of Article X(l) shall apply. (2) Faculty Meetings. (a) Regular monthly meetings of the Faculty shall be called upon due notice by the President; except that in the period comprising the months of December and January only one regular meeting need be called. The President or, in his absence, the Dean, shall preside. In the absence of the President and the Dean, the Faculty shall elect one of its members to preside. (b) Special meetings of the Faculty may be called upon due notice by the President alone or at the request of five Faculty members. (c) Due notice shall be construed to mean no less than three days notice, except in cases of emergency. (d) A quorum shall consist of a majority of the Faculty in residence except as otherwise provided. (e) Only Tutors may vote on instructional matters. All Faculty members may vote on all other matters not specifically restricted in the Polity. (3) The Secretary of the Faculty. At the last regular meeting of an academic year, the Faculty on each campus shall elect one of its members, then in at least his or her third year at the College, as Secretary. The Secretary shall assist in the preparation and circulation of the agenda for Faculty meetings, shall keep the minutes of such meetings, and shall collect and circulate reports of Faculty committees. Article XI THE SCHOLARS-IN-RESIDENCE AND THE ARTISTS-IN-RESIDENCE The Scholars-in-Residence and the Artists-in-Residence shall be appointed from time to time by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President after consultation with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the campus where the Scholars and Artists shall reside. Article XII THE STUDENTS (1) The primary responsibilities of the Students are to study and to make themselves as competent as possible in all parts of the St. John's Program. Their advice and service shall be 27 �sought by the Faculty in such matters and in such ways as may best serve the general welfare of the College. (2) The Students of St. John's College shall constitute the Student Polity of St. John's College in Annapolis and in Santa Fe. (3) The Student Polity in Annapolis or Santa Fe may establish for itself a government which is representative of all polity members. The Dean on each campus may delegate to the Student government a share of the responsibility for the general welfare of the Students and whatever government of the Students may be necessary for the greatest possible attainment of the aims of the program. The duties of the Student Government may include: (a) the management of funds available to the Student Polity; (b) the sanctioning of all student clubs, organizations, and activities, and their regulation, if necessary; (c) the representation of the Students of St. John's College to the community outside the College; (d) the establishment and maintenance of formal channels of communication between the Students and the Faculty; and (e) any other duties agreed upon by the Students and the Dean. Article XIII THE GRADUATE INSTITUTE (1) The Directors. (a) There shall be a Director of the Graduate Institute on each campus to whom shall be delegated responsibility and authority, under the Chair of the Instruction Committee, for the organization and supervision on the Director’s campus of the graduate program of instruction in the liberal arts and for matters concerning the general welfare of the students. Concerning matters that affect the Graduate Institute as a whole the Director shall, in consultation with the other Director, be responsible to the Chair of the Instruction Committee. Concerning matters limited to one campus, the Director on that campus shall be responsible to the Dean on that campus. (b) The Directors shall be appointed for terms of four years from among the Tutors by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President, after consultation with the Deans and a special committee consisting of five members, three from the campus on which the new Director will serve, and two from the other campus, selected from among themselves by the Tutors having tenure. The Directors shall be Tutors of the Graduate Institute. 28 �(c) Every three years, on an alternating basis, one of the Directors shall write a Statement of Educational Policy and Program for the Graduate Institute. The Director who writes the Statement, after consulting with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on his or her campus, and with the other Director, shall submit the Statement to the Instruction Committee for discussion at its joint meeting. (2) The Faculty Teaching in the Graduate Institute. (a) Each Director, after consultation with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on that campus, and in accordance with the recommendation of the Instruction Committee on the same campus, shall recommend to the President Tutors for appointment in the summer session of the Graduate Institute. (b) During the summer term the Tutors teaching in the Graduate Institute on each campus shall have the authority to recommend to the Board of Visitors and Governors candidates for degrees. (3) Committees for the Graduate Institute. (a) On each campus the Committee for the Graduate Institute shares with the Director on the same campus responsibility for carrying out the program of instruction of the Graduate Institute and for the general welfare of the students. (b) Each Committee shall consist of three Tutors who have experience in the Institute, in addition to the Director, who shall serve as Chair. (c) Members of each Committee shall be appointed by the Director with the concurrence of the Dean on the same campus after consultation with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on that campus. (4) Proposals concerning matters of instruction or policy shall originate with one of the Directors, after consultation with the other Director and with the Committee for the Graduate Institute, and shall be submitted to the Dean on the originating campus for handling in accordance with Article X(l)(a)(i). Article XIV THE ALUMNI (1) Alumni shall be life-long members of the College, since St. John's College is a community not limited by geographical location or fixed periods of time. (2) The Alumni Association is the formal means by which Alumni participate in the life of the College. Through the election of alumni members of the Board of Visitors and Governors, 29 �Alumni share in the direction of that life. In these and other ways, Alumni shall be given the opportunity to serve the College. (3) The College shall cooperate with the Alumni Association to enable Alumni to assist in providing services such as recruiting and interviewing prospective students, placing graduates in appropriate employment, and advising students concerning careers and admission to graduate and professional schools. (4) The College, in cooperation with the Alumni Association, shall provide seminars and other appropriate educational activities in Annapolis, in Santa Fe, and in other places. Article XV THE STAFF (1) Members of the Staff assist with the administration and maintenance of the College, performing duties necessary to its well-being. They are subject to appropriate Staff rules and regulations. (2) Members of the Staff on either campus may establish for themselves a Staff Council for the purpose of better communication and understanding of College policies as a benefit to the College as a whole. The Staff Council shall seek to establish and maintain formal channels of communication among the whole Staff and between the Staff and the appropriate College Officers. The Treasurer on each campus shall review Staff employment regulations with the Staff Council and discuss with them any changes proposed. (3) The Staff Council may establish such committees as it deems appropriate. Article XVI AMENDMENTS AND REVIEW (1) Amendments to this Polity may be proposed by a majority of the Polity Review Committee, or by a petition submitted by not fewer than ten percent of the members of the Board, or by the Faculty as provided for in section (2) and (3) below. Written notice of a proposed amendment must be provided to the Board and to the Faculty not less than 30 days prior to the date of the Board meeting at which the amendment is to be considered. The Faculty shall have the right to inform the Board in writing of its recommendation with respect to the proposed amendment by the time of that meeting. This Polity may be amended by a twothirds vote of those members voting at any regular or special meeting of the Board, provided that the votes of no fewer than one-third of the members of the entire Board eligible to vote are in favor of such amendment. (2) Amendments may be proposed at any regular meeting of either the Faculty in Annapolis or the Faculty in Santa Fe upon petition of not less than ten percent of the members on either campus. No such proposal shall be acted upon earlier than the next regular meeting of the 30 �Faculty, whether in Annapolis or in Santa Fe. A two-thirds vote of the entire Faculty in residence, including at least a simple majority vote of the Faculty in residence on each of the campuses, shall be required for approval and the amendment shall not become effective unless approved by the Board in the manner set forth in Section (1) above. (3) Every five years this Polity shall be reviewed by a committee of six, three to be elected by the Faculty on each campus. The report of the Committee shall be submitted to one regular Faculty meeting and voted upon at the next regular Faculty meeting. A two-thirds vote of the entire Faculty in residence, including at least a simple majority vote of the Faculty in residence on each of the campuses, shall be required for approval of any proposed amendments. Whatever action is thus recommended by the Faculty shall be submitted to the Board for final decision in the manner set forth in Section (1) above. Article XVII COMPLIANCE WITH LAW No provision of this Polity shall be construed to contravene any applicable federal or state law. If any provision is determined to contravene any such law, that provision shall be deemed not a part of this Polity, and this Polity's remaining provisions shall remain in full force and effect. Article XVIII MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE There shall be a Management Committee for the college composed of the Presidents and Deans of both campuses. The Chair of the Management Committee will report to and be appointed annually by the Board of Visitors and Governors. With the advice of the Committee, and in a collegial manner, the Chair shall exercise executive authority over the College as a whole with respect to: (1) college-wide strategic planning, including defining the processes for strategic thinking, leading conversations regarding strategic decisions, and presentation of and planning for the strategic goals of the college and their accomplishment; (2) college-wide advancement, including capital campaigns, external relations and publications, common college-wide donor information and databases, oversight and implementation of ongoing development initiatives, and oversight of alumni relations efforts, including the work of the Alumni Relations directors and that portion of the work of Career Services directors pertaining to alumni; (3) budgeting and resource planning, including approval of campus-specific budgets, preparation of college-wide budgets, oversight and implementation of a college-wide 31 �information management system, and oversight and implementation of consistent accounting, audit, and financial reporting processes; (4) approval and monitoring of admissions and financial aid policies for both campuses; and (5) such other matters as may be assigned to the Chair from time to time. The Management Committee shall not have executive authority over instructional matters assigned to the Instruction Committee and its Chair under Articles V and IX(1) of the Polity. 32 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Charter and Polity of the College Description An account of the resource Revised and amended editions of the St. John's College Charter and Polity.<br /><br />The College's first Charter and Polity was published as the <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/3768">September 1950</a> issue of the <em><a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/collections/show/37">Bulletin of St. John's College in Annapolis</a></em>. Revised and amended versions were published as individual issues of the <em>Bulletin</em> in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/3746">1951</a>, <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7844">1960</a>, <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7845">1963</a>, and <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7846">1965</a>. <br /><br />The Charter and Polity was published as a separate document in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7850">1955</a> and again from <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7851">1970</a> forward. The most recent version of the Charter and Polity is also available on the College's <a href="https://www.sjc.edu/about/leadership/board-visitors-governors/charter-polity">website</a>. <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Items in the Charter and Polity of the College Collection" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?tags=Charter+and+Polity&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate">Items in the Charter and Polity of the College Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data PDF Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 33 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Charter and Polity of the College, 2010 Description An account of the resource Charter and Polity of the College, amended and restated April 2010. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Santa Fe, NM Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-04 Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Subject The topic of the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Legal instruments Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Charter_and_Polity_2010 Charter and Polity https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/8a701aa726edcc447c0c3a9735462b9d.pdf cf71d6aadeb02bf84d4af7c613ad9d01 PDF Text Text Charter and Polity of the College ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND ~ SANTA FE, NEW MEXICO Amended and Restated February 2013 Founded as King William’s School, 1696 Chartered as St. John’s College, 1784 �Since this Polity can be amended between printings, the current official Polity is kept in the offices of the Presidents of St. John's College. HISTORY St. John's College was founded in 1696 as King William's School in accordance with a Petitionary Act for free-schools of the General Assembly of the Colony of Maryland. Following the Revolutionary War, the General Assembly of the new State of Maryland granted a Charter to St. John's College pursuant to and as a part of Chapter 37 of the Laws of Maryland of 1784. This Charter was subsequently amended by the General Assembly through Resolution No. 41 of 1832. The Visitors and Governors of St. John's College in 1950 revised the Charter to eliminate extraneous and obsolete matter and to make certain other amendments consistent with present requirements and conditions. It was the opinion of the Attorney General of Maryland that the original Charter of the College was subject to the general Corporation Laws of Maryland and might accordingly be amended by the Visitors and Governors, pursuant to these laws, without legislative action by the General Assembly. Subsequent amendments were made in 1961, in 1963, in 1965, in 1970, and in 1975. When the decision was reached to establish a second St. John's College in Santa Fe, New Mexico, amendments were made to the Charter to authorize branches or extensions of the College. The Charter was then filed with the Corporations Commission of the State of New Mexico as a foreign corporation. The College was thus empowered to grant degrees in New Mexico under the provisions of its Maryland Charter. A Polity for the College was first suggested at a faculty meeting in 1943 by the Dean. A faculty committee was elected and drafted a Polity, which was then promulgated by the President. In April 1949 the Faculty elected a committee to revise the Polity. The resulting document was approved by the Faculty on April 9, 1950, and was adopted by the Board of Visitors and Governors on July 8, 1950. Subsequent quinquennial reviews were made by elected faculty committees, and desired amendments were recommended by the Faculty to the Board of Visitors and Governors. The Polity was thus amended at regular meetings of the Board held on May 14, 1955; May 21, 1960; May 15, 1965; June 6, 1970; April 19, 1975; January 16, 1982; April 19, 1986; and October 19, 1991. Other amendments were adopted by the Board at regular meetings on February 22 and December 9, 1961; February 23 and September 28, 1963; October 3, 1970; February 18, 1972; October 25, 1975; January 24, 1976; November 6, 1982; July 21, 1984; April 20, 1985; October 25, 1986; April 11, 1987; October 19, 1991; July 18, 1992; April 17, 1993; April 22, 1995; April 19, 1996; April 24, 1999, and November 6, 1999; January 27, 2001, April 26, 2003; April 24, 2004; January 27, 2006; April 22, 2006; April 25, 2009; April 24, 2010, October 29, 2011, and February 23, 2013. �CHARTER OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE WHEREAS, institutions for the liberal education of youth in the principles of virtue, knowledge and useful literature are of the highest benefit to society, in order to train up and perpetuate a succession of able and honest men for discharging the various offices and duties of life, both civil and religious, with usefulness and reputation, and such institutions of learning have accordingly been promoted and encouraged by the wisest and best regulated States; And whereas, it appears to this General Assembly that many public spirited individuals, from an earnest desire to promote the founding a college or seminary of learning on the Western Shore of this State have subscribed and procured subscriptions to a considerable amount, and there is reason to believe that very large additions will be obtained to the same throughout the different counties of the said Shore, if they were made capable in law to receive and apply the same towards founding and carrying on a college or general seminary of learning with such salutary plan and with such legislative assistance and direction as the General Assembly might think fit, and this General Assembly, highly approving those generous exertions of individuals, are desirous to embrace the present favorable occasion of peace and prosperity for making lasting provision for the encouragement and advancement of all useful knowledge and literature through every part of this State; BE IT ENACTED: II. That a college or general seminary of learning by the name of "St. John's College" be established on the said Western Shore upon the following fundamental and inviolable principles; namely, first, the said college shall be founded and maintained forever upon a most liberal plan for the benefit of youth of every religious denomination, who shall be freely admitted to equal privileges and advantages of education and to all the literary honors of the college, according to their merit without requiring or enforcing any religious or civil test, or urging their attendance upon any particular religious worship or service other than what they have been educated in or have the consent and approbation of their parents or guardians to attend; nor shall any preference be given in the choice of a Principal, Vice-Principal or other Professor, Master or Tutor in said college on account of his particular religious profession, having regard solely to his moral character and literary abilities and other necessary qualifications to fill the place for which he shall be chosen. IV. That the governing body or board of said College shall consist of not more than sixty nor less than thirteen Visitors and Governors, to be chosen and to hold office in such manner as the said Visitors and Governors may determine and prescribe by their fundamental ordinances; provided, however, that the Governors of the States of Maryland and New Mexico shall act ex officio as two of the total number of Visitors and Governors of said college during their respective terms in said offices; and that the said Visitors and Governors and their successors duly chosen shall be and are hereby declared to be one community, corporation and body politic to have continuance forever by the name of and by the same name they shall have perpetual succession. �ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE VII. That if the City of Annapolis should be fixed upon as a proper place for establishing the said intended college, this General Assembly give and grant, and upon that condition do hereby give and grant to the Visitors and Governors of the said College by the name of "The Visitors and Governors of Saint John's College in the State of Maryland," and their successors all that four acres within the City of Annapolis purchased for the use by the public and conveyed on the 2nd day of October, 1744, by Stephen Bordley, Esq., to Thos. Bladen, Esq., then Governor, to have and to hold the said four acres of land with the appurtenances to the said Visitors and Governors and their successors for the only use, benefit and behoof of the said college and seminary of universal learning forever. VIII. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors by the same name shall be able and capable in law to purchase, have and enjoy to them and their successors in fee, or for any other less estate or estates, any lands, tenements, rents, annuities, pensions or other hereditaments by the gift, grant, bargain, sale, alienation, enfeoffment, release, confirmation, or devise of any person or persons, bodies politic or corporate capable to make the same, and such lands, tenements, rents, annuities, pensions or other hereditaments or any less estates, rights or interests of or in the same at their pleasure to grant, alien, sell and transfer in such manner and form as they shall think meet and convenient for the furtherance of the said college; And also that they may take and receive any sum or sums of money, and any kind, manner or portion of goods and chattels that shall be given, sold or bequeathed to them by any person or persons, bodies politic or corporate capable to make a gift, sale or bequest thereof and employ the same towards erecting, setting up and maintaining the said college in such manner as they shall judge most necessary and convenient for the instruction, improvement and education of youth in the vernacular and learned languages, and generally in any kind of literature, arts and sciences, which they shall think proper to be taught for training up good, useful and accomplished men for the service of their country, in church and state. IX. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors by the name aforesaid shall be able in law to sue and be sued, plead and be impleadable in any court or courts, before any judge, judges, or justices within this State and elsewhere in all and all manner of suits, complaints, pleas, causes, matters and demands of whatsoever kind, nature or form they be and all and every other matter and thing therein to do in as full and effectual a manner as any other person or persons, bodies politic or corporate within this State or any of the United States of America in like cases may or can do. X. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors shall have full power and authority to have, make and use one common and public seal and likewise one privy seal with such devices and inscriptions as they shall think proper, and to ascertain, fix and regulate the uses of both seals, by their own laws and the same seals or either of them to change, break, alter and renew at their pleasure. XI. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors from time to time and at all times hereafter, forever, shall have full power and authority to constitute and appoint in such manner as they shall think best and most convenient, a principal, a vice-principal of the said college and �professors with proper tutors and assistants for instructing the students and scholars of the said seminary in all the liberal arts and sciences, and in the ancient and modem tongues and languages; and the said principal, vice-principal and professors so constituted and appointed from time to time shall be known and distinguished forever as one learned body or faculty by the name of "The Principal, Vice-Principal and Professors of St. John's College"; and by that name shall be capable of exercising such powers and authorities as the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors shall by their ordinances think necessary to delegate to them for the instruction, discipline and government of the said seminary and of all the students, scholars, ministers and servants belonging to the same. XIV. That a majority of the said Visitors and Governors for the time being and duly assembled at any meeting upon due notice given to the whole body of Visitors and Governors shall have full power and authority to make fundamental ordinances for the government of the said college and the instruction of youth as aforesaid, and by these ordinances to appoint such a number of their own body not less than seven, as they may think proper for transacting all general and necessary business of the said seminary and making temporary rules for the government of the same; and also by the said fundamental ordinances to delegate to the principal, vice-principal and professors such powers and authorities as they may think best for the standing government of the said seminary and of the execution of the ordinances and rules of the same; provided always that they be not repugnant to the form of government of any law of this State. XV. And for animating and encouraging the students of said college to a laudable diligence, industry and progress in useful literature and science, be it enacted that the said Visitors and Governors and their successors shall by a written mandate under their privy seal and the hand of someone of the Visitors and Governors to be chosen annually as their President, according to the ordinance to be made for that purpose, have full power and authority to direct the principal, viceprincipal and professors to hold public commencements either on stated annual days, or occasionally as the future ordinances of the said seminary may direct and at such commencements to admit any of the students in the said college or any other persons meriting the same (whose names shall be severally inserted in the same mandate) to any degree or degrees in any of the faculties, arts and sciences and liberal professions to which persons are usually admitted in other colleges or universities in America or Europe; And it is hereby enacted that the principal, or in the case of his death or absence, the vice-principal, and in case of the death or absence of both, the senior professor who may be present, shall make out and sign with his name diplomas or certificates of the admission to such degree or degrees, which shall be sealed with the public or greater seal of the said corporation or college and delivered to the graduates as honorable and perpetual testimonials of such admission; which diplomas, if thought necessary for doing greater honor to such graduates, shall also be signed with the names of the different professors or as many of them as can conveniently sign the same; provided always that no student or students within the said college shall ever be admitted to any such degree or degrees, or have their name inserted in any mandate for a degree, until such student or students have been first duly examined, and thought worthy of the same. XVI. That the ordinances which shall be from time to time made by the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors with an account of their other proceedings and of the management of the estate and moneys committed to their trust, shall when required be laid �before the General Assembly for their inspection and examination, but in case at any time hereafter through oversight, or otherwise through misapprehension and mistaken constructions of the powers, liberties and franchises in this Charter or Act of Incorporation granted, or intended to be granted, any ordinance should be made by the said corporation of Visitors and Governors or any matters done and transacted by the corporation contrary to the tenor hereof, it is enacted that although such ordinances, acts and doings shall in themselves be null and void, yet they shall not, however, in any courts of law, or by the General Assembly, be deemed, taken, interpreted or adjudged into an avoidance or forfeiture of this Charter and Act of Incorporation, but the same shall be and remain unhurt, inviolate and entire unto the said corporation of Visitors and Governors in perpetual succession; and all their acts conformable to the powers, true intent and meaning hereof shall be and remain in full force and validity, the nullity and avoidance of such illegal acts to the contrary in any wise notwithstanding. XVII. That this Charter and Act of Incorporation and every part thereof shall be good and available in all things in the law according to the true intent and meaning thereof, and shall be construed, reputed and adjudged in all cases most favorably on the behalf and for the best benefit and behoof of the said Visitors and Governors and their successors, so as most effectually to answer the valuable end of this Act of Incorporation towards the general advancement and promotion of useful knowledge, science and virtue. XVIII. That the College may establish and operate one or more branches in one or more states of the United States. �Polity of St. John's College Preamble Education is the making of men and women out of children by bringing them into the world of inherited customs, intellectual traditions, and spiritual ties. Institutions of learning are set up for this purpose. Beyond this they should also seek to develop the moral and intellectual powers of their students to enable them to fulfill best their freely chosen tasks and thus to take their own responsible part in shaping the future. St. John's College is a community of learning committed to holding these ends constantly in sight and to seeking the best means of attaining them. St. John's College strives to illuminate the common heritage of humanity in a persisting study of the great documents in which that heritage can be found. It is concerned with the unity of knowledge, an understanding of the great issues, and the moral foundations on which men and women may conduct their lives. To provide proper conditions for the pursuit of these ends, we, the Board of Visitors and Governors, after consultation with the Faculty, do ordain and establish this Polity for St. John's College. Article I THE COLLEGE (1) St. John's College is by its Charter a legal entity, carrying on its functions from its campuses in Annapolis, Maryland, and in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Under the Charter of the College, all power, authority, and responsibility pertaining to the College are vested in the Visitors and Governors. (2) The College consists of the following: The Board of Visitors and Governors, the Faculty, the Graduate and Undergraduate Students, the Alumni and the Staff, and other members who may be named from time to time by the Board of Visitors and Governors. (3) Under the Charter, "the said Visitors and Governors, and their successors, from time to time, and at all times hereafter, forever, shall have full power and authority to constitute and appoint, in such manner as they shall think best and most convenient, a principal and viceprincipal of the said College, and professors, with proper tutors and assistants, for instructing the students and scholars of the said seminary in all the liberal arts and sciences, and in the ancient and modern tongues and languages; and the said principal, vice-principal, and professors, so constituted and appointed from time to time shall be known and distinguished forever as one learned body or faculty, by the name of 'The Principal, Vice-Principal, and Professors of St. John's College;' and by that name shall be capable of exercising such powers and authorities as the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors shall by their ordinances think necessary to delegate to them for the instruction, discipline, and government of the said seminary and of all the students, scholars, ministers and servants belonging to the same." �(a) The "principal" shall be the Presidents. When 'President' is used in this Polity it shall mean: (i) with respect to membership on the Board of Visitors and Governors, in the Faculty, on committees of the Board, and sitting ex officio with the Instruction Committee, and for presentation of, and response to, the Statement of Educational Policy and Program (Article V (l)(c)), the President of the Annapolis campus and the President of the Santa Fe campus; (ii) with respect to membership on committees or sitting ex officio with committees, and actions or procedures relating to one campus, the President of that campus; (iii) with respect to actions under Article II (12)(b) or actions or procedures involving the entire College under Article X (l)(a)(i) and Article X (l)(a)(iii), either President. (b) The "vice-principal" shall be the Dean who is serving as the Chair of the Instruction Committee. (c) There shall be a Dean of St. John's College in Annapolis and a Dean of St. John's College in Santa Fe. (d) The "professors, tutors and assistants" shall bear the title Tutor or Tutor Emeritus. Tutors who have completed their tenure appointments shall be Tutors Emeriti. (e) There shall be Vice-Presidents for College Advancement and Treasurers. (f) There shall be Associate members of the Faculty, hereinafter called Associates, as provided in Article VIII. (g) The "one learned body or faculty," composed of the President, the Deans, the other Tutors, the Tutors Emeriti, the Vice-Presidents for College Advancement, the Treasurers, and the Associates, shall bear the title the Faculty of St. John's College. (h) All who have formally matriculated, are at the present enrolled, and are in good standing shall be called Students of St. John's College. (i) The Directors and the Tutors of the Graduate Institute shall be called the Faculty of the Graduate Institute. (j) All who have been awarded a degree by the College shall be called Alumni. In addition, all who have completed at least one semester of undergraduate study or at least one segment of Graduate Institute study, but who are not currently enrolled, shall be called Alumni either a) in the case of undergraduate students, when the class with which they matriculated has graduated, or b) in the case of Graduate Institute students, at the end of three full sessions of the Graduate Institute after the one in which they last enrolled. All �who have been designated as honorary members of the Alumni Association of St. John’s College shall be called Alumni. All who have ever been Alumni shall continue to be. (k) The Staff shall consist of all persons appointed by the President who are not members of the Faculty of St. John's College or the Faculty of the Graduate Institute. (l) There shall be no discrimination at St. John's College in appointments, conditions of employment, admissions, educational policy, financial aid programs, athletics, or other activities, on the basis of race, religion, age, sex, national origin, color, disability and/or handicap, sexual orientation, or other characteristic protected by any applicable federal, state or local law. Article II VISITORS AND GOVERNORS (1) Qualifications for Membership. Persons shall be eligible for membership on the Board of Visitors and Governors who are concerned for the maintenance, progress, and vitality of St. John’s College’s educational program and who are willing and able to discharge the responsibilities of trusteeship with devotion and energy. (2) Members. The Board of Visitors and Governors shall consist of not more than thirty four members, comprising the Presidents, the Deans, the Governors of Maryland and New Mexico, and the President of the St. John’s College Alumni Association, ex officio, twentyseven members, of whom not more than twenty-four shall be elected by the entire Board, and of whom not more than three shall be elected by the Alumni of the College, all in the manner and for the terms hereinafter provided. In recognition of meritorious service to the College, Visitors Emeriti may be elected to the Board who may attend all meetings of the Board, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. Retired members of the Board who have served six (6) terms on the Board as members in good standing may be designated as Honorary Board Members upon election by the Board. Honorary Board Members will receive minutes of the Plenary Sessions of the Board, may, as a guest, attend the Plenary Sessions of all regular meetings of the Board, and may be asked to assist on Board Committees. (3) Elections by the Board. At each annual meeting, the Board shall elect a class of members for a term of three years, to succeed those members whose term expires at the conclusion of said meeting. Those members elected shall begin their term upon the conclusion of the meeting of their election. The procedure for nomination and election shall be as follows: There shall be a Trustee and Governance Committee of the Board appointed by the Chair. The Chair and the Presidents shall sit with the committee, ex officio, when nominations to Board membership are being considered. The Trustee and Governance Committee shall recommend to each member of the Board in writing, not later than thirty days prior to the annual meeting at which the election is to be held, at least one candidate for each of the places to be filled by such election, including each position as an officer of the Board. Additional nominations may be made in writing, addressed to the Chair, signed by at least �five members of the Board, prior to the date above provided for the report of the Trustee and Governance Committee, and any such additional nominations shall be reported to the Board by the Committee at the time of its report. Voting on nominations at annual meetings may be by ballot, each member present to vote on said nominations. In case the balloting results in a tie for one or more positions, the Board shall determine the procedure to resolve the tie. No nominee for member or officer of the Board shall be deemed elected who has not received the affirmative votes of at least a majority of the members present at the meeting. If there should be fewer than eight members in any class prior to the end of the term for such class, any vacancy may be filled pursuant to the procedure provided above for regular elections, except that the election may take place at any regular meeting. A member elected to fill any such vacancy shall hold office for the remainder of the term of the class in which such vacancy occurred. (4) Elections by the Alumni. The voice of alumni being of particular value to the Board, each year one of the college’s alumni shall be elected to membership for a term of three years, in such manner that there shall be three members of the Board elected by the alumni, consisting of three classes of one member each. Outgoing members so elected shall continue to serve until their successors’ term of office begins. Such elections shall be conducted in accordance with the By-laws of the Alumni Association of St. John’s College. A representative of the Alumni Association Board shall consult with the Chair of the Trustee and Governance Committee of the Board of Visitors and Governors concerning the Association’s nominees and shall advise the Trustee and Governance Committee of its nominees in advance of the Board of Visitors and Governors’ mid-year meeting so that the organizations’ respective nominations can reasonably be coordinated. In the event that for any reason there should be fewer than one member so elected in any class prior to the end of the term of that class, the vacancy may be filled by the Alumni Association of St. John’s College. Newly elected alumni shall begin their terms immediately following the annual meeting of the Board. (5) Faculty Representation at Board Meetings. Three members of the Faculty shall be elected by the Faculty on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on the campus to which they belong, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (6) Student Representation at Board Meetings. Two students shall be elected by the Students on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on the campus to which they belong, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (7) Graduate Institute Director Representation at Board Meetings. Each Director of the Graduate Institute may attend all regular sessions of the Board on such Director’s campus, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. �(8) Graduate Institute Student Representation at Board Meetings. A student of the Graduate Institute shall be elected by the Students of the Graduate Institute on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on such student’s campus, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (9) Staff Representation at Board Meetings. The Staff on each campus shall be invited to send two representatives to all regular sessions of the Board at that campus, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (10) Reelection: A member of the Board elected by the Board or the Alumni may be elected for not more than two consecutive terms, but may, after a second consecutive term, be reelected by the Board or the Alumni to membership at their respective annual meetings in the year following the expiration of the member’s second term. Notwithstanding the foregoing, in extraordinary circumstances, the Trustee and Governance Committee may recommend the reelection of Board members for an additional term of up to three years. (11) Meetings of the Board. (a) The Board shall hold at least three regular meetings annually, at least one of which shall be held on each campus. The last meeting of the academic year shall be called the annual meeting. The time and place of regular meetings shall be determined by the Chair, in consultation with the President, and notice of regular meetings shall be given not less than fifteen days prior to such meetings. (b) Special meetings of the Board may be called by the President, the Chair, the Executive Committee, or any nine members of the Board, not less than seven days after the dispatch of written, faxed, or e-mail notice of the time, place, and purposes of the meeting. Such notice may be dispensed with if waived in writing by all members of the Board either before or after the meeting. (c) Any business may be conducted at a regular meeting without specific notice of such business (except that which is required by law or as provided herein as to elections and amendments), but no business shall be conducted at any special meeting unless notice of such business has been given, or has been waived as above provided. (d) One third of the members of the Board shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. (e) The Board in regular session is open to elected and ex officio members, to Visitors Emeriti, to Honorary Board Members as guests, to Associates and others invited by the President, and to official representatives of the Faculty, Students, Graduate Institute, and Staff. Attendance at Executive sessions shall be limited to voting members and Visitors Emeriti. Public sessions shall be open without restriction. The Chair of the Board, in consultation with the Presidents, shall determine whether any meeting or portion of a meeting shall be in regular, executive, or public session. �(12) Officers of the Board. At each annual meeting the Board shall elect a Chair, Vice-Chair, and Secretary, to hold office until the next annual meeting or until their successors are elected. Vacancies in any such offices may be filled at any regular meeting, or any special meeting called for that purpose. Such officers shall perform the customary duties of such offices, and such other duties as the Board may from time to time direct. (13) Committees of the Board. (a) Executive Committee. The Chair, Vice-Chair, Secretary, Presidents, Deans, Chairs of the Finance, Advancement, Visiting, and Trustee and Governance Committees, and two other members chosen annually by the Board at the annual meeting shall comprise the Executive Committee of the Board. In intervals between meetings of the Board, the Executive Committee may act for the Board, except in those matters expressly delegated to some other committee, person, or persons. Eight members of the Executive Committee present at a meeting shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. The Executive Committee shall determine the compensation of the Vice Presidents and Treasurers. The Executive Committee shall recommend to the Board the compensation of the Presidents and shall also recommend annually to the Board the Chair of the Management Committee. (b) Presidential Search Committee. There shall be a Presidential Search Committee to recommend the appointment of a President as provided in Article IV(2). (c) Trustee and Governance Committee. There shall be a Trustee and Governance Committee which shall be responsible for the nomination, orientation, and assessment of members of the Board as provided in Article II(3), and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall charge. (d) Visiting Committee. There shall be a Visiting Committee, which shall meet at least once annually with the Instruction Committee on one of the campuses. The Visiting Committee shall discuss the Statement of Educational Policy and Program of the Chair of the Instruction Committee and become acquainted with the aims of the College and how they are being realized, and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall charge. The Deans shall be members of the Committee, ex officio. (e) Finance Committee. There shall be a Finance Committee which shall be responsible for recommending to the Board the annual budgets, policies for the expenditures from endowments, major capital expenditures, and policies for the investment of College assets. It shall be responsible for the oversight of the College’s financial matters, physical plant and compensation policies for faculty and staff, and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall charge. The Presidents, Treasurers, and Chair of the Board shall sit on the Committee, ex officio. (f) Audit Committee. There shall be an Audit Committee, including a Chair, appointed by the Chair of the Board. The Committee shall be responsible for the review in detail of the annual report of the independent auditors and the discussion of audit findings with the �auditors, unattended by employees of the College. The Committee shall recommend to the Board the appointment or reappointment of independent auditors to conduct the audit for the next fiscal year. The Committee shall report to the Board annually on its review of the audit, shall bring to the attention of the Board any matters related thereto requiring Board action, and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall determine. The Treasurers shall serve as non-voting Staff to the committee. (g) Polity Review Committee. There shall be a Polity Review Committee appointed by the Chair every fifth year. The Chair of the Board shall appoint one of the members to be Chair of the Committee. The Committee shall receive the report of the Faculty Committee and after appropriate study shall make recommendations to the Board for consideration at the annual meeting when the final review of the Polity is consummated. The respective Chairs of the Board and Faculty Review Committees shall make such arrangements as they deem appropriate for joint consultation prior to and after the adoption of the report by the Faculty. (h) Advancement Committee. There shall be an Advancement Committee which shall be responsible for the oversight of the College’s fundraising, communications, and alumni relations functions, and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall determine. The Vice Presidents for College Advancement shall be members of the Committee, ex officio. (i) Other Committees. The Chair may appoint such other standing or special committees of the Board as the Chair deems desirable or which the Board may request. (j) Former members of the Board and Visitors Emeriti may be appointed by and at the discretion of the Chair to serve on committees. (k) Except for the Presidential Search Committee and the Polity Review Committee, committee appointments shall be made annually. Members of the Committees serve until their successors have been appointed. (l) Any member of the Board may, without invitation, attend any Board committee meeting, except those of the Presidential Search, Trustee and Governance, and Executive Committees, but without vote. (m) Whenever a Capital Campaign is in progress, its Chair shall be an ex-officio voting member of the Finance and Executive Committees. (14) Execution of Contracts, Transfer of Securities, Etc. All contracts of $50,000 or more, notes, deeds, leases, mortgages, releases, bonds for security or indemnity, negotiable instruments, stock certificates, transfers, and powers, and like papers and documents on behalf of the College or the Endowment Funds shall be executed by two persons, of whom one shall be the President, the Chair, or a Vice-Chair, and of whom the other shall be the Secretary of the Board or the Treasurer of the campus concerned. �(15) Signing of checks, drafts, etc. All checks, drafts, acceptances, and similar orders for the payment of money on behalf of the College may be signed by the same persons authorized to execute contracts, etc., pursuant to Section (14) hereof, but may also be signed by such persons, and in such manner, as the Board may from time to time direct by appropriate resolution. (16) The College shall indemnify, to the full extent permitted by law, any current or former member of the Board or officer of the College or any person who, while a member of the Board or an officer of the College, may have served at the College’s request as a director, officer, partner or trustee of another entity, against any judgments, penalties, fines, settlements and reasonable expenses actually and necessarily incurred by him or her in connection with the defense of any action, suit or proceeding to which he or she is made a party by reason of being or having been such member of the Board or officer of the College. Article III THE FACULTY The Visitors and Governors by these ordinances hereby delegate to the Faculty of St. John's College the President, the Deans, the other Tutors, the Tutors Emeriti, the Vice-Presidents for College Advancement, the Treasurers, and the Associates "powers and authorities" for the "instruction, discipline, and government" of the College. Article IV THE FACULTY: THE PRESIDENT (1) There shall be a President for the Annapolis campus and a President for the Santa Fe campus, each appointed as provided in Article IV (2). There is delegated to each President by the Visitors and Governors executive responsibility and authority for the instruction, discipline, and government of the President’s campus, and the President, in turn, may delegate such authority. In the interest of the orderly conduct of business and of maintaining and promoting the unity of the College, the Presidents shall regularly consult and communicate with each other and, as appropriate, with other College officials, on matters of common concern. (2) The President shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of a Committee composed of five members of the Board of Visitors and Governors appointed by the Chair of the Board, at least one of whom is an alumnus, the Deans, and one Tutor having tenure from each campus elected by the Faculty on that campus. This Committee shall be known as the Presidential Search Committee. It shall consult with the continuing President in a regular and timely fashion. Prior to making its final recommendation, it shall, on both campuses, consult with all other appropriate persons and shall arrange for the final candidates to meet with the Faculty and the Instruction Committee. �(3) The President shall concurrently be a Tutor, but the provisions of Article VI need not apply. (4) The President and persons to whom the President delegates authority shall consult with the Deans, other appropriate persons, and appropriate Faculty committees in matters of policy, initiation of programs, and setting of priorities affecting the general welfare of the College. (5) There shall be a Financial Committee on each campus consisting of the President as Chair, the Dean and Treasurer of the campus, and other members the President may appoint. It will review proposed budgets prior to their being presented to the Finance Committee of the Board. It will also meet prior to Board meetings to review performance in the fiscal year to date and emerging budgetary strengths and weaknesses. (6) The President shall appoint, or delegate the power to appoint, other committees as may be necessary for the carrying out of the President’s duties for which no provision is made under Article IX. (7) If in the judgment of the Board of Visitors and Governors, the College is facing a financial exigency at either or both of its campuses which could call for a reduction in the number of Faculty positions, both Presidents shall immediately advise the Faculty of the nature and extent of the financial difficulty and consult with them concerning the best way to address the situation. The Faculty may then make a formal recommendation to the Presidents on ways to meet the problem, or, if the Faculty fails so to act, the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall propose a plan to the Presidents. The Presidents shall jointly then determine a plan which specifies a preferred course of action to be taken. All necessary steps must be taken in timely fashion as prescribed by the Board. Nothing herein provided shall limit the power of the Board to act otherwise in the event of need to reduce or eliminate Faculty positions. Article V THE FACULTY: THE CHAIR OF THE INSTRUCTION COMMITTEE AND THE DEANS (1) The Chair of the Instruction Committee. (a) There is delegated to the Chair of the Instruction Committee responsibility and authority for the organization of the program of instruction in the liberal arts that is followed by the Tutors and the Students. (b) The Deans shall serve alternately, for a term of one year, as Chair of the Instruction Committee. (c) Each year the Chair of the Instruction Committee shall, after consultation with the Instruction Committee on the Chair’s campus, and after discussion with the Instruction Committee of the College, submit a Statement of Educational Policy and Program to the Faculty as a whole for discussion. The Presidents shall present the Statement, together �with an account of the Faculty discussion of it, and their responses to it, as a report to the Board of Visitors and Governors for its consideration. (d) Should the Chair of the Instruction Committee or the Chair of the Board of Visitors and Governors deem it appropriate, the Chair of the Instruction Committee shall report to the Board on instructional matters, and shall respond to such questions as the Board, through its Chair, may ask. (2) The Deans. (a) There is delegated to the Deans on their respective campuses responsibility and authority for the supervision of the program of instruction and for the general welfare of the students and for whatever government of the students be necessary for the greatest possible attainment of aims of the program. Each Dean shall be the Chair of the Instruction Committee on such Dean’s campus. In carrying out the Dean’s duties, each Dean shall consult regularly with the President and with the Instruction Committee and the other appropriate Faculty committees on that campus. (b) The Deans shall be appointed for terms of five years from among the Tutors by the Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President after consultation with a special committee of seven, four from the campus for which the Dean is being chosen and three from the other campus, selected from among themselves by the Tutors having tenure. (c) A Dean shall be appointed from among the tutors who have themselves been appointed in accord with Article VI(3). If non-tenured, the appointee shall acquire tenure upon becoming Dean, in which case the provisions of Article VI(3)(a) regarding reappointment schedules shall not apply. (d) To assist them in carrying out their duties, the Deans shall recommend one or more Tutors to be appointed by the President with the title of Assistant Dean. (e) During the absence of the President from either campus, the Dean on that campus shall if necessary exercise the President's prerogative of final decision. (f) During the absence of either Dean from the campus a Tutor with tenure named by the Dean shall act for the Dean. (g) The Dean on each campus shall appoint such committees as may be necessary for the carrying out of the Dean’s duties for which no other provision is made. �Article VI THE FACULTY: THE TUTORS (1) The primary responsibilities of the Tutors are to teach and to make themselves as competent as possible in all parts of the St. John's Program. (2) The Tutors shall have authority to recommend to the Visitors and Governors candidates for degrees of their respective campuses. (3) Appointment and Reappointment of Tutors. Tutors shall be appointed by the Visitors and Governors upon recommendation of the President in accordance with the recommendation of the Dean and the Instruction Committee on that campus where the Tutors so appointed shall teach. (a) The schedule of regular appointment of Tutors on each campus shall be either (i)(A) or (i)(B) below, to be decided by the President in accordance with the recommendation of the Dean and the Instruction Committee on that campus where the Tutors so appointed shall teach: (i)(A) New Tutors shall be appointed for one year unless they are appointed at mid-year, in which case the initial appointment shall be for a year and a half. First reappointments shall be for one year. Second and third reappointments shall be for two and three years respectively. (i)(B) New Tutors shall be appointed for two years unless they are appointed at midyear, in which case the initial appointment shall be for a year and a half. First and second reappointments shall be for two and three years respectively. (ii) A Tutor who has completed a three-year appointment must either be given a tenure appointment or not be reappointed as Tutor. A Tutor may, however, be given a tenure appointment as early as the conclusion of the first year of a three-year appointment. Procedures leading to a recommendation for an early tenure appointment shall be initiated by the Dean and Instruction Committee, but not without the consent of the appointee, and shall not prejudice subsequent consideration for a tenure appointment. Tenure appointments shall not continue beyond retirement. Tutors Emeriti shall retain their privileges and responsibilities in voting at Faculty meetings. (iii) Before making recommendations to the President on tenure appointments the Dean on each campus shall consult with the Instruction Committee on that campus, after seeking the advice of the Tutors on that campus. (iv) A Tutor, to be recommended for a tenure appointment, must have served full-time at the campus where the recommendation is to be made for the two years immediately preceding the year in which that recommendation is made, the provisions of (ii) above �notwithstanding. In ordinary cases, these two years of service will be the second year of a two-year appointment and the first year of a three-year appointment. These requirements may be waived by the President on the recommendation of the Dean and Instruction Committee on that campus. (b) A non-tenure appointment as Tutor establishes the possibility, but not the presumption, of its renewal and the granting of a tenure appointment. Procedures for considering nontenure appointments differ from those for considering tenure appointments. Satisfaction of appointment criteria admits of degree. With each successive reappointment, the criteria are applied more rigorously. For a tenure appointment the application is especially strict. (c) For the purpose of temporary transfer between campuses, special appointments of one or two years may be granted to a Tutor in addition to his or her regular appointments. The Tutor may ask that such an appointment be counted as a regular appointment for the purpose of (a) above. In the case of a permanent transfer a Tutor may ask that years of service at the other campus be counted toward tenure according to the provisions of (a) above. Nevertheless, the provisions of (3)(a)(iv) prevail. (d) Special one-year appointments and reappointments may be given to Tutors who intend to teach on a part-time basis only. Such a Tutor may subsequently apply for and receive a regular appointment. Special part-time appointments may then be counted on a fractional basis toward eligibility for tenure, subject to the provisions of (3)(a)(iv). In establishing eligibility for sabbatical leave, special part-time appointments shall be computed proportionately. (e) Visiting Tutors may be appointed for a term or a year. (4) Notification. (a) A Tutor under consideration for a non-tenure appointment to begin in a certain calendar year shall be notified by the President no later than December 15th of the preceding calendar year whether reappointment will be recommended to the Board of Visitors and Governors. A Tutor who is reappointed shall be notified by the President by March 1st of the calendar year in which the new appointment is to begin. (b) A Tutor under consideration for a tenure appointment to begin in a certain calendar year shall be notified by the President no later than May 31st of the preceding calendar year whether the appointment will be recommended to the Board of Visitors and Governors. A Tutor who is appointed shall be notified by the President by July 31st of that same preceding year. (5) A Tutor may apply to the Instruction Committee of the College not later than January 15th for a transfer of campus for the next academic year. Transfers shall require approval of both Deans after consultation with their Instruction Committees. �(6) (a) A Tutor’s appointment may be terminated by the Board of Visitors and Governors for one of the following reasons only: (i) failure or inability to perform teaching duties in a satisfactory manner, or (ii) moral turpitude. The President shall make such a recommendation to the Board of Visitors and Governors only with the concurrence of the Dean and the Instruction Committee of the campus concerned. Before making such a recommendation, the President shall advise the Tutor affected, and the Tutor shall have the right to be heard by the Instruction Committee or, at the Tutor’s option, by another committee to be designated by the President for this purpose. (b) Either Dean, with the approval of the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned, may recommend to the President that in the interest of instruction a Tutor be temporarily relieved of duties in whole or in part at any time. When such action is taken, the Tutor's salary shall be continued for the remainder of the current academic year. (7) The sabbatical leave program is designed to provide Tutors with an opportunity for study, rest, and renewal of spirit, in anticipation of future teaching. It is the objective of the program to grant all applications for sabbatical leave meeting the conditions for eligibility set out in (a) of this section. It is understood that Tutors on such leave will not undertake full-time remunerative employment elsewhere and will return to the College. (a) Eligibility for sabbatical leave shall be upon the following conditions: (i) A Tutor who has received a tenure appointment may apply for a full year of sabbatical leave at full salary, to be taken upon completion of the equivalent of seven full years of service to the College since the original appointment, or the equivalent of six full years of service since any previous sabbatical leave. (ii) Such a Tutor may apply for an earlier sabbatical leave of a full year at partial salary, or a partial year at full salary. The fractional salary or fractional year shall be determined by the number of years of teaching completed in relation to the prescribed total for either an initial or a subsequent sabbatical leave, as the case may be. In no case shall a Tutor be paid more than the Tutor’s regular salary. (iii) Upon completion of sabbatical leave, a Tutor is expected to return to the College for at least two more years. (b) If, in the judgment of the President, financial or academic needs at a campus should require that fewer sabbatical leaves be granted there in a given year than there are qualified applicants, and if the number that can be granted there should be smaller than one-sixth of the number of Tutors at that campus having tenure and not on full-time leave under the provisions of section (8) below, the President shall so notify the Board of �Visitors and Governors and seek its approval for delaying a sabbatical leave for one or more of the applicants. (c) If in a year there are more qualified applicants for sabbatical leave at any one campus than there are leaves to be granted at that campus, then those members shall have precedence who meet the following conditions in the order set forth: (i) Those who have served for the greater number of years since their first appointment as Tutor or since their last sabbatical leave, whichever is more recent; (ii) Those whose service has been continuous throughout those years; (iii) Those whose last sabbatical leave was postponed because of the financial or academic needs of the College; (iv) Those who have seniority of appointment. When there is a conflict of precedence, the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned shall be consulted. (d) A Tutor eligible for sabbatical leave shall make application to the President before November 1st for leave to begin the following July 1st, and shall be informed of the action upon the application not later than January 1st. (8) The President, with the concurrence of the Dean after consultation with the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned, may grant leaves of absence to Tutors for a period of one year or less. At that time it shall be determined whether the leave shall be counted as service to the College with respect to eligibility for sabbatical leave and, if so, how. The decision with respect to a request for leave of absence shall be made in the light of the requirements both of the applicant Tutor and of the whole College. (a) Leave of absence may be renewed upon request but not more than twice in succession except in extraordinary circumstances. (b) A request for a leave of absence shall be submitted to the President as early as possible in the academic year before the year in which the leave is to be taken, but not later than January 15th of that year. Requests for leaves of absence may be withdrawn at any time prior to April 1st of the year in which the request is submitted. Requests for leaves of absence for the second semester must be submitted no later than October 15th. (c) Tutors on sabbatical leave or leave of absence remain members of the Faculty with the right of full participation in Faculty meetings and all other College exercises. �Article VII THE FACULTY: THE VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR COLLEGE ADVANCEMENT AND THE TREASURERS (1) The Vice-Presidents for College Advancement shall be responsible to the President for the supervision and development of all programs in fund-raising, public relations, and alumni relations on their respective campuses. (2) The Vice-President for College Advancement on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President made after consultation with the Dean on that campus and a committee constituted by resolution of the Faculty on that campus. (3) The Treasurers shall have charge, on their respective campuses, under the supervision of the President, of all funds and property, and shall have authority to carry out fiscal and property transactions, and to receive and disburse funds, subject to the provisions of this Polity and other directions and arrangements pursuant thereto. (4) The Treasurer on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President made after consultation with the Dean on that campus and a committee constituted by resolution of the Faculty on that campus. (5) The Vice-Presidents for College Advancement and Treasurers may be appointed Tutors under the provisions of Article VI(3)(d). Article VIII THE FACULTY: THE ASSOCIATES (1) Associate members of the Faculty on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President in consultation with the Dean of that campus. On each campus, the President shall have ultimate executive authority over the Associates. (2) Associates may be appointed Tutors under the provisions of Article VI(3)(d). (3) The Associates on either campus may establish for themselves an Associates' Council for the purpose of considering College matters of concern to them and communicating with other members of the College. (4) The Associates' Councils may establish such committees as they deem appropriate. �(5) There shall be the following Associates, as deemed necessary by the President on each campus, with the powers and responsibilities provided. (a) The Registrars. The Registrars shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses. They shall prepare and supervise the registration of students and shall be responsible for the academic records and schedules of students. (b) The Librarians. The Librarians shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the operation of the library. Appointments of professional members of the Library Staff shall be made upon the recommendation of the Librarian to the Dean on each campus. (c) The Director of Student Activities and the Director of Athletics. The Director of Student Activities and the Director of Athletics, as the case may be, shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for devising and directing programs of recreational activities. (d) The Directors of Admissions. The Directors of Admissions shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the annual enrollment of qualified freshmen. (e) The Directors of Alumni Activities. The Directors of Alumni Activities shall be responsible to the Vice-Presidents for College Advancement. Their primary duty is to enable the College and the Alumni Association to be of service to alumni. (f) The Directors of Financial Aid. The Directors of Financial Aid shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the administration of financial aid programs. (g) The Directors of Career Services. The Directors of Career Services shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for helping and counseling students with respect to graduate and professional schools and careers. (h) The Director of College Information Technology Services. The Director of College Information Technology Services shall be responsible to both Presidents for the development and management of information services college-wide. (i) The Directors of Laboratories. The Directors of Laboratories shall be responsible to the Dean, in consultation with the Laboratory archons, for training and directing the student laboratory assistants, designing experiments for the laboratory program, and purchasing and maintaining laboratory equipment. �Article IX THE FACULTY: FACULTY COMMITTEES (1) College-wide Committees (a) The Instruction Committee (i) The Instruction Committee shares with its Chairs responsibility for the program of instruction of the College. It shall consist of twelve Tutors in addition to the Deans. The Presidents shall sit with the Committee ex officio. Six of the Tutors shall be elected from each campus of the College. The Instruction Committee shall meet annually. On each campus the members of the Instruction Committee and the Dean as Chair constitute the Instruction Committee of the College on that campus. The President sits ex officio with the Instruction Committee on each campus. (ii) Each of the members of the Instruction Committee shall serve for a term of three years, and the terms shall be arranged in such a way that each year the terms of two members at each campus shall expire. Terms begin and end the day following commencement exercises. Annually, and separately at each campus, the President with the Dean on his campus, after consulting with the Instruction Committee and seeking the advice of the other Tutors on that campus, shall at the last regular Faculty meeting on that campus nominate four Tutors of whom two shall be elected by the Tutors to membership on the Instruction Committee. The Faculty shall be informed of the names of the nominees prior to the meeting at which the election occurs. At the expiration of the three-year term a member of the Instruction Committee shall for one year be ineligible for reelection. (iii) If for any reason a member of the Instruction Committee is unable to serve for a part of his or her term, another Tutor shall be chosen to serve for that part of the term. For this purpose the President and the Dean, in consultation with the Instruction Committee on the campus where the vacancy occurs, shall nominate two Tutors of whom the Tutors shall elect one in a regular Faculty meeting. (iv) If the Instruction Committee resigns with the Deans on a matter of confidence and the resignations are accepted, the President, in consultation with the new Deans and after seeking the advice of the other Tutors, shall nominate nine Tutors for the six vacancies on each campus in such a manner that two out of each three nominees shall be elected by the Tutors for each of the three classes to fill the unexpired terms. (b) The Tutors' Compensation Committee (i) There shall be a Tutors' Compensation Committee of six Tutors, three to be elected by the Tutors on each campus, and the chair shall annually alternate �between campuses. The Committee shall advise the President concerning Tutors' compensation and related matters; it shall make annual reviews of the College's statement of Tutors' salaries and other compensation of Tutors and report to the Tutors and the President recommendations consequent upon the review. (ii) Members of the Committee shall be elected annually on each campus for terms of three years in such a manner that the term of one member on each campus terminates each year. The Tutors' Compensation Committee on each campus shall provide the Tutors on that campus with two nominations for each vacancy on the Committee on that campus. Additional nominations may be made at the Faculty meeting when election shall be made. (2) Campus-specific Committees (a) The Campus Planning Committees. The Faculty on each campus shall elect five of its members as a Campus Planning Committee. Two members shall be elected to the Committee annually except in every third year, when one member shall be chosen. The President, the Dean, one of the Assistant Deans, and the Treasurer on each campus shall sit ex officio with the Committee on that campus. It shall be the duty of the respective committees to advise the President on the construction of new buildings, the renovation of old buildings, landscaping of grounds, and all matters relating to the maintenance and development of the campus. (b) The Library Committees. The President on each campus, in consultation with the Librarian and the Dean, shall appoint three Tutors on each campus to serve as a Library Committee. The President, the Dean, and the Librarian shall themselves be ex officio members of the Committee, and the Librarian shall serve as Chair. It shall be the duty of the Library Committees to assist the Librarians in making the Libraries serve the ends of the College and its program; it shall be their duty to advise the Librarians in regard to Library policy and acquisitions. (c) The Information Technology Committees. The Dean on each campus shall appoint three Tutors to serve as an Information Technology Committee, one of whom shall serve as Chair. Each Tutor shall serve a three-year term. The Dean, the Director of College Information Technology Services, and the Librarian shall be ex officio members. It shall be the duty of the Information Technology Committees to advise the Director of College Information Technology Services in regard to the needs of the College and its Program. (d) The Prize Committees. Every three years the President shall appoint Tutors on each campus to supervise the awarding of prizes on the respective campuses. The Committees shall have full authority to decide what prizes shall be awarded and to name the recipients of the prizes. (e) The Fellowship Committees. On each campus there shall be a Fellowship Committee appointed by the President. It shall be the duty of this Committee to inform students �of fellowships for which they may be eligible, to assist them in applying for fellowships, and to act on behalf of the College in any matter relating to application for fellowships. (f) Other Committees. The Faculty on each campus shall have authority to elect, or to request the President to appoint, additional committees that may from time to time become necessary. Article X THE FACULTY: FACULTY PROCEDURE (1) Procedure for Instructional Proposals. (a) (i) Any proposal concerning matters of instruction that may affect the College as a whole shall originate with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on either campus. A decision as to whether a proposal is college-wide or campus-specific shall be made by the Deans and Instruction Committee of the College. They shall make this decision after notifying the Faculty on both campuses and inviting their comment. Written statements of college-wide instructional proposals shall be distributed to the Faculty at least two weeks before the Faculty meeting at which they are to be presented; the proposal shall be presented to the whole Faculty by the Chair of the Instruction Committee, either in person or through the other Dean. If, after full discussion of any proposal so presented, there be no objection on the part of any Tutor, the measure stands approved and becomes effective as of the date specified therefore. If, after full discussion, a Tutor objects to the proposal and holds to the objection, the proposal shall be submitted to vote of the Tutors at special Faculty meetings called by the Presidents within a month. Any objections that have been made and held to and submitted in writing shall be transmitted immediately in writing to the whole faculty. Any objections that have been made and held to but not submitted in writing shall be reported immediately in writing to the whole Faculty. If, after discussion, any objection has been made and held to, the Presidents, in calling special Faculty meetings, shall report the statement of the Chair of the Instruction and the Dean on the other campus as to whether it be a matter of confidence; and in submitting the proposal to vote, the Chair of the Instruction Committee and the Dean on the other campus shall, at the special Faculty meetings, repeat their statement as to whether it be a matter of confidence. The vote may then be taken and tallied by the Presidents in such a fashion that the Tutors shall have recorded their decision acting as a whole. If the proposal be one that the Chair of the Instruction Committee and the other Dean have declared a matter of confidence and if it be defeated by majority vote, the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall immediately resign. If it be passed by majority vote, it shall become effective as of the date specified therefore. For the �confidence procedure a quorum shall consist of three-fourths of all resident Tutors on each campus. (ii) Any instructional proposal that has been deemed campus-specific shall be subject to the procedure set forth above, except that, if an objection is made and held to on either campus, voting shall proceed only on the campus were the proposal is intended to be put into effect. Any objections that have been made and held to and submitted in writing on the other campus shall be transmitted immediately to the voting Faculty. Any objections that have been made and held to but not submitted in writing shall be reported immediately in writing to the voting Faculty. If the confidence procedure is invoked, it shall be only by the Dean on the voting campus, and it shall affect the Dean and the Instruction Committee only on that campus. (iii) The President may refuse to accept the resignation of the Deans or the Instruction Committee, any or all of them, whenever in the judgment of the President such resignation would be detrimental to the proper functioning of the College; provided, however, that if any six or more Tutors shall petition the Visitors and Governors, the latter shall review the President's decision within four weeks, during which time the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall continue in office. (iv) In the event that the proposal be defeated and the resignations be accepted, the President shall proceed to the choice of new Deans in accordance with the provisions of Article V (2)(b). (b) Upon either a petition of not less than one-tenth of the Tutors on either campus or a request from the President, the Dean and Instruction Committee on that campus shall consider any recommendation concerning instruction and shall report to the Faculty within one year their proposal concerning it. They shall decide whether their proposal is a college-wide or campus-specific proposal, and the procedure of Article X(l) shall apply. (2) Faculty Meetings. (a) Regular monthly meetings of the Faculty shall be called upon due notice by the President; except that in the period comprising the months of December and January only one regular meeting need be called. The President or, in his absence, the Dean, shall preside. In the absence of the President and the Dean, the Faculty shall elect one of its members to preside. (b) Special meetings of the Faculty may be called upon due notice by the President alone or at the request of five Faculty members. (c) Due notice shall be construed to mean no less than three days notice, except in cases of emergency. �(d) A quorum shall consist of a majority of the Faculty in residence except as otherwise provided. (e) Only Tutors may vote on instructional matters. All Faculty members may vote on all other matters not specifically restricted in the Polity. (3) The Secretary of the Faculty. At the last regular meeting of an academic year, the Faculty on each campus shall elect one of its members, then in at least his or her third year at the College, as Secretary. The Secretary shall assist in the preparation and circulation of the agenda for Faculty meetings, shall keep the minutes of such meetings, and shall collect and circulate reports of Faculty committees. Article XI THE SCHOLARS-IN-RESIDENCE AND THE ARTISTS-IN-RESIDENCE The Scholars-in-Residence and the Artists-in-Residence shall be appointed from time to time by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President after consultation with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the campus where the Scholars and Artists shall reside. Article XII THE STUDENTS (1) The primary responsibilities of the Students are to study and to make themselves as competent as possible in all parts of the St. John's Program. Their advice and service shall be sought by the Faculty in such matters and in such ways as may best serve the general welfare of the College. (2) The Students of St. John's College shall constitute the Student Polity of St. John's College in Annapolis and in Santa Fe. (3) The Student Polity in Annapolis or Santa Fe may establish for itself a government which is representative of all polity members. The Dean on each campus may delegate to the Student government a share of the responsibility for the general welfare of the Students and whatever government of the Students may be necessary for the greatest possible attainment of the aims of the program. The duties of the Student Government may include: (a) the management of funds available to the Student Polity; (b) the sanctioning of all student clubs, organizations, and activities, and their regulation, if necessary; �(c) the representation of the Students of St. John's College to the community outside the College; (d) the establishment and maintenance of formal channels of communication between the Students and the Faculty; and (e) any other duties agreed upon by the Students and the Dean. Article XIII THE GRADUATE INSTITUTE (1) The Directors. (a) There shall be a Director of the Graduate Institute on each campus to whom shall be delegated responsibility and authority, under the Chair of the Instruction Committee, for the organization and supervision on the Director’s campus of the graduate program of instruction in the liberal arts and for matters concerning the general welfare of the students. Concerning matters that affect the Graduate Institute as a whole the Director shall, in consultation with the other Director, be responsible to the Chair of the Instruction Committee. Concerning matters limited to one campus, the Director on that campus shall be responsible to the Dean on that campus. (b) The Directors shall be appointed for terms of four years from among the Tutors by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President, after consultation with the Deans and a special committee consisting of five members, three from the campus on which the new Director will serve, and two from the other campus, selected from among themselves by the Tutors having tenure. The Directors shall be Tutors of the Graduate Institute. (c) Every three years, on an alternating basis, one of the Directors shall write a Statement of Educational Policy and Program for the Graduate Institute. The Director who writes the Statement, after consulting with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on his or her campus, and with the other Director, shall submit the Statement to the Instruction Committee for discussion at its joint meeting. (2) The Faculty Teaching in the Graduate Institute. (a) Each Director, after consultation with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on that campus, and in accordance with the recommendation of the Instruction Committee on the same campus, shall recommend to the President Tutors for appointment in the summer session of the Graduate Institute. (b) During the summer term the Tutors teaching in the Graduate Institute on each campus shall have the authority to recommend to the Board of Visitors and Governors candidates for degrees. �(3) Committees for the Graduate Institute. (a) On each campus the Committee for the Graduate Institute shares with the Director on the same campus responsibility for carrying out the program of instruction of the Graduate Institute and for the general welfare of the students. (b) Each Committee shall consist of three Tutors who have experience in the Institute, in addition to the Director, who shall serve as Chair. (c) Members of each Committee shall be appointed by the Director with the concurrence of the Dean on the same campus after consultation with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on that campus. (4) Proposals concerning matters of instruction or policy shall originate with one of the Directors, after consultation with the other Director and with the Committee for the Graduate Institute, and shall be submitted to the Dean on the originating campus for handling in accordance with Article X(l)(a)(i). Article XIV THE ALUMNI (1) Alumni shall be life-long members of the College, since St. John's College is a community not limited by geographical location or fixed periods of time. (2) The Alumni Association is the formal means by which Alumni participate in the life of the College. Through the election of alumni members of the Board of Visitors and Governors, Alumni share in the direction of that life. In these and other ways, Alumni shall be given the opportunity to serve the College. (3) The College shall cooperate with the Alumni Association to enable Alumni to assist in providing services such as recruiting and interviewing prospective students, placing graduates in appropriate employment, and advising students concerning careers and admission to graduate and professional schools. (4) The College, in cooperation with the Alumni Association, shall provide seminars and other appropriate educational activities in Annapolis, in Santa Fe, and in other places. Article XV THE STAFF (1) Members of the Staff assist with the administration and maintenance of the College, performing duties necessary to its well-being. They are subject to appropriate Staff rules and regulations. �(2) Members of the Staff on either campus may establish for themselves a Staff Council for the purpose of better communication and understanding of College policies as a benefit to the College as a whole. The Staff Council shall seek to establish and maintain formal channels of communication among the whole Staff and between the Staff and the appropriate College Officers. The Treasurer on each campus shall review Staff employment regulations with the Staff Council and discuss with them any changes proposed. (3) The Staff Council may establish such committees as it deems appropriate. Article XVI AMENDMENTS AND REVIEW (1) Amendments to this Polity may be proposed by a majority of the Polity Review Committee, or by a petition submitted by not fewer than ten percent of the members of the Board, or by the Faculty as provided for in section (2) and (3) below. Written notice of a proposed amendment must be provided to the Board and to the Faculty not less than 30 days prior to the date of the Board meeting at which the amendment is to be considered. The Faculty shall have the right to inform the Board in writing of its recommendation with respect to the proposed amendment by the time of that meeting. This Polity may be amended by a twothirds vote of those members voting at any regular or special meeting of the Board, provided that the votes of no fewer than one-third of the members of the entire Board eligible to vote are in favor of such amendment. (2) Amendments may be proposed at any regular meeting of either the Faculty in Annapolis or the Faculty in Santa Fe upon petition of not less than ten percent of the members on either campus. No such proposal shall be acted upon earlier than the next regular meeting of the Faculty, whether in Annapolis or in Santa Fe. A two-thirds vote of the entire Faculty in residence, including at least a simple majority vote of the Faculty in residence on each of the campuses, shall be required for approval and the amendment shall not become effective unless approved by the Board in the manner set forth in Section (1) above. (3) Every five years this Polity shall be reviewed by a committee of six, three to be elected by the Faculty on each campus. The report of the Committee shall be submitted to one regular Faculty meeting and voted upon at the next regular Faculty meeting. A two-thirds vote of the entire Faculty in residence, including at least a simple majority vote of the Faculty in residence on each of the campuses, shall be required for approval of any proposed amendments. Whatever action is thus recommended by the Faculty shall be submitted to the Board for final decision in the manner set forth in Section (1) above. �Article XVII COMPLIANCE WITH LAW No provision of this Polity shall be construed to contravene any applicable federal or state law. If any provision is determined to contravene any such law, that provision shall be deemed not a part of this Polity, and this Polity's remaining provisions shall remain in full force and effect. Article XVIII MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE There shall be a Management Committee for the college composed of the Presidents and Deans of both campuses. The Chair of the Management Committee will report to and be appointed annually by the Board of Visitors and Governors. With the advice of the Committee, and in a collegial manner, the Chair shall exercise executive authority over the College as a whole with respect to: (1) college-wide strategic planning, including defining the processes for strategic thinking, leading conversations regarding strategic decisions, and presentation of and planning for the strategic goals of the college and their accomplishment; (2) college-wide advancement, including capital campaigns, external relations and publications, common college-wide donor information and databases, oversight and implementation of ongoing development initiatives, and oversight of alumni relations efforts, including the work of the Alumni Relations directors and that portion of the work of Career Services directors pertaining to alumni; (3) budgeting and resource planning, including approval of campus-specific budgets, preparation of college-wide budgets, oversight and implementation of a college-wide information management system, and oversight and implementation of consistent accounting, audit, and financial reporting processes; (4) approval and monitoring of admissions and financial aid policies for both campuses; and (5) such other matters as may be assigned to the Chair from time to time. The Management Committee shall not have executive authority over instructional matters assigned to the Instruction Committee and its Chair under Articles V and IX(1) of the Polity. �ARTICLE XIX TRANSITION SCHEDULE The reduction in size contemplated by the October 2011 amendments to the Polity is intended to take place over a period of time. No member is to have his or her term shortened by virtue of this change, which will be accomplished through the normal expiration of members’ current terms. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Charter and Polity of the College Description An account of the resource Revised and amended editions of the St. John's College Charter and Polity.<br /><br />The College's first Charter and Polity was published as the <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/3768">September 1950</a> issue of the <em><a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/collections/show/37">Bulletin of St. John's College in Annapolis</a></em>. Revised and amended versions were published as individual issues of the <em>Bulletin</em> in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/3746">1951</a>, <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7844">1960</a>, <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7845">1963</a>, and <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7846">1965</a>. <br /><br />The Charter and Polity was published as a separate document in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7850">1955</a> and again from <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7851">1970</a> forward. The most recent version of the Charter and Polity is also available on the College's <a href="https://www.sjc.edu/about/leadership/board-visitors-governors/charter-polity">website</a>. <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Items in the Charter and Polity of the College Collection" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?tags=Charter+and+Polity&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate">Items in the Charter and Polity of the College Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data PDF Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 32 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Charter and Polity of the College, 2013 Description An account of the resource Charter and Polity of the College, amended and restated February 2013. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Santa Fe, NM Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-02 Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Subject The topic of the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Legal instruments Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Charter_and_Polity_St_Johns_College_2013 Charter and Polity https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/ba735235eb4c209df00fad0cf2658383.pdf 6deb0311b4ccfdc052ff79e1abbdd036 PDF Text Text Charter and Polity of the College ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND ~ SANTA FE, NEW MEXICO Amended and Restated June 2016 Founded as King William’s School, 1696 Chartered as St. John’s College, 1784 � Since this Polity can be amended between printings, the current official Polity is kept in the offices of the Presidents of St. John's College. HISTORY St. John's College was founded in 1696 as King William's School in accordance with a Petitionary Act for free-schools of the General Assembly of the Colony of Maryland. Following the Revolutionary War, the General Assembly of the new State of Maryland granted a Charter to St. John's College pursuant to and as a part of Chapter 37 of the Laws of Maryland of 1784. This Charter was subsequently amended by the General Assembly through Resolution No. 41 of 1832. The Visitors and Governors of St. John's College in 1950 revised the Charter to eliminate extraneous and obsolete matter and to make certain other amendments consistent with present requirements and conditions. It was the opinion of the Attorney General of Maryland that the original Charter of the College was subject to the general Corporation Laws of Maryland and might accordingly be amended by the Visitors and Governors, pursuant to these laws, without legislative action by the General Assembly. Subsequent amendments were made in 1961, in 1963, in 1965, in 1970, and in 1975. When the decision was reached to establish a second St. John's College in Santa Fe, New Mexico, amendments were made to the Charter to authorize branches or extensions of the College. The Charter was then filed with the Corporations Commission of the State of New Mexico as a foreign corporation. The College was thus empowered to grant degrees in New Mexico under the provisions of its Maryland Charter. A Polity for the College was first suggested at a faculty meeting in 1943 by the Dean. A faculty committee was elected and drafted a Polity, which was then promulgated by the President. In April 1949 the Faculty elected a committee to revise the Polity. The resulting document was approved by the Faculty on April 9, 1950, and was adopted by the Board of Visitors and Governors on July 8, 1950. Subsequent quinquennial reviews were made by elected faculty committees, and desired amendments were recommended by the Faculty to the Board of Visitors and Governors. The Polity was thus amended at regular meetings of the Board held on May 14, 1955; May 21, 1960; May 15, 1965; June 6, 1970; April 19, 1975; January 16, 1982; April 19, 1986; and October 19, 1991. Other amendments were adopted by the Board at regular meetings on February 22 and December 9, 1961; February 23 and September 28, 1963; October 3, 1970; February 18, 1972; October 25, 1975; January 24, 1976; November 6, 1982; July 21, 1984; April 20, 1985; October 25, 1986; April 11, 1987; October 19, 1991; July 18, 1992; April 17, 1993; April 22, 1995; April 19, 1996; April 24, 1999, and November 6, 1999; January 27, 2001, April 26, 2003; April 24, 2004; January 27, 2006; April 22, 2006; April 25, 2009; April 24, 2010, October 29, 2011, February 23, 2013, and June 17, 2016. �CHARTER OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE WHEREAS, institutions for the liberal education of youth in the principles of virtue, knowledge and useful literature are of the highest benefit to society, in order to train up and perpetuate a succession of able and honest men for discharging the various offices and duties of life, both civil and religious, with usefulness and reputation, and such institutions of learning have accordingly been promoted and encouraged by the wisest and best regulated States; And whereas, it appears to this General Assembly that many public spirited individuals, from an earnest desire to promote the founding a college or seminary of learning on the Western Shore of this State have subscribed and procured subscriptions to a considerable amount, and there is reason to believe that very large additions will be obtained to the same throughout the different counties of the said Shore, if they were made capable in law to receive and apply the same towards founding and carrying on a college or general seminary of learning with such salutary plan and with such legislative assistance and direction as the General Assembly might think fit, and this General Assembly, highly approving those generous exertions of individuals, are desirous to embrace the present favorable occasion of peace and prosperity for making lasting provision for the encouragement and advancement of all useful knowledge and literature through every part of this State; BE IT ENACTED: II. That a college or general seminary of learning by the name of "St. John's College" be established on the said Western Shore upon the following fundamental and inviolable principles; namely, first, the said college shall be founded and maintained forever upon a most liberal plan for the benefit of youth of every religious denomination, who shall be freely admitted to equal privileges and advantages of education and to all the literary honors of the college, according to their merit without requiring or enforcing any religious or civil test, or urging their attendance upon any particular religious worship or service other than what they have been educated in or have the consent and approbation of their parents or guardians to attend; nor shall any preference be given in the choice of a Principal, Vice-Principal or other Professor, Master or Tutor in said college on account of his particular religious profession, having regard solely to his moral character and literary abilities and other necessary qualifications to fill the place for which he shall be chosen. IV. That the governing body or board of said College shall consist of not more than sixty nor less than thirteen Visitors and Governors, to be chosen and to hold office in such manner as the said Visitors and Governors may determine and prescribe by their fundamental ordinances; provided, however, that the Governors of the States of Maryland and New Mexico shall act ex officio as two of the total number of Visitors and Governors of said college during their respective terms in said offices; and that the said Visitors and Governors and their successors duly chosen shall be and are hereby declared to be one community, corporation and body politic to have continuance forever by the name of ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE and by the same name they shall have perpetual succession. � VII. That if the City of Annapolis should be fixed upon as a proper place for establishing the said intended college, this General Assembly give and grant, and upon that condition do hereby give and grant to the Visitors and Governors of the said College by the name of "The Visitors and Governors of Saint John's College in the State of Maryland," and their successors all that four acres within the City of Annapolis purchased for the use by the public and conveyed on the 2nd day of October, 1744, by Stephen Bordley, Esq., to Thos. Bladen, Esq., then Governor, to have and to hold the said four acres of land with the appurtenances to the said Visitors and Governors and their successors for the only use, benefit and behoof of the said college and seminary of universal learning forever. VIII. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors by the same name shall be able and capable in law to purchase, have and enjoy to them and their successors in fee, or for any other less estate or estates, any lands, tenements, rents, annuities, pensions or other hereditaments by the gift, grant, bargain, sale, alienation, enfeoffment, release, confirmation, or devise of any person or persons, bodies politic or corporate capable to make the same, and such lands, tenements, rents, annuities, pensions or other hereditaments or any less estates, rights or interests of or in the same at their pleasure to grant, alien, sell and transfer in such manner and form as they shall think meet and convenient for the furtherance of the said college; And also that they may take and receive any sum or sums of money, and any kind, manner or portion of goods and chattels that shall be given, sold or bequeathed to them by any person or persons, bodies politic or corporate capable to make a gift, sale or bequest thereof and employ the same towards erecting, setting up and maintaining the said college in such manner as they shall judge most necessary and convenient for the instruction, improvement and education of youth in the vernacular and learned languages, and generally in any kind of literature, arts and sciences, which they shall think proper to be taught for training up good, useful and accomplished men for the service of their country, in church and state. IX. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors by the name aforesaid shall be able in law to sue and be sued, plead and be impleadable in any court or courts, before any judge, judges, or justices within this State and elsewhere in all and all manner of suits, complaints, pleas, causes, matters and demands of whatsoever kind, nature or form they be and all and every other matter and thing therein to do in as full and effectual a manner as any other person or persons, bodies politic or corporate within this State or any of the United States of America in like cases may or can do. X. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors shall have full power and authority to have, make and use one common and public seal and likewise one privy seal with such devices and inscriptions as they shall think proper, and to ascertain, fix and regulate the uses of both seals, by their own laws and the same seals or either of them to change, break, alter and renew at their pleasure. XI. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors from time to time and at all times hereafter, forever, shall have full power and authority to constitute and appoint in such manner as they shall think best and most convenient, a principal, a vice-principal of the said college and professors with proper tutors and assistants for instructing the students and scholars of the said seminary in all the liberal arts and sciences, and in the ancient and modem tongues and languages; and the said principal, vice-principal and professors so constituted and appointed from time to time � shall be known and distinguished forever as one learned body or faculty by the name of "The Principal, Vice-Principal and Professors of St. John's College"; and by that name shall be capable of exercising such powers and authorities as the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors shall by their ordinances think necessary to delegate to them for the instruction, discipline and government of the said seminary and of all the students, scholars, ministers and servants belonging to the same. XIV. That a majority of the said Visitors and Governors for the time being and duly assembled at any meeting upon due notice given to the whole body of Visitors and Governors shall have full power and authority to make fundamental ordinances for the government of the said college and the instruction of youth as aforesaid, and by these ordinances to appoint such a number of their own body not less than seven, as they may think proper for transacting all general and necessary business of the said seminary and making temporary rules for the government of the same; and also by the said fundamental ordinances to delegate to the principal, vice-principal and professors such powers and authorities as they may think best for the standing government of the said seminary and of the execution of the ordinances and rules of the same; provided always that they be not repugnant to the form of government of any law of this State. XV. And for animating and encouraging the students of said college to a laudable diligence, industry and progress in useful literature and science, be it enacted that the said Visitors and Governors and their successors shall by a written mandate under their privy seal and the hand of someone of the Visitors and Governors to be chosen annually as their President, according to the ordinance to be made for that purpose, have full power and authority to direct the principal, vice-principal and professors to hold public commencements either on stated annual days, or occasionally as the future ordinances of the said seminary may direct and at such commencements to admit any of the students in the said college or any other persons meriting the same (whose names shall be severally inserted in the same mandate) to any degree or degrees in any of the faculties, arts and sciences and liberal professions to which persons are usually admitted in other colleges or universities in America or Europe; And it is hereby enacted that the principal, or in the case of his death or absence, the vice-principal, and in case of the death or absence of both, the senior professor who may be present, shall make out and sign with his name diplomas or certificates of the admission to such degree or degrees, which shall be sealed with the public or greater seal of the said corporation or college and delivered to the graduates as honorable and perpetual testimonials of such admission; which diplomas, if thought necessary for doing greater honor to such graduates, shall also be signed with the names of the different professors or as many of them as can conveniently sign the same; provided always that no student or students within the said college shall ever be admitted to any such degree or degrees, or have their name inserted in any mandate for a degree, until such student or students have been first duly examined, and thought worthy of the same. XVI. That the ordinances which shall be from time to time made by the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors with an account of their other proceedings and of the management of the estate and moneys committed to their trust, shall when required be laid before the General Assembly for their inspection and examination, but in case at any time hereafter through oversight, or otherwise through misapprehension and mistaken constructions of the powers, liberties and franchises in this Charter or Act of Incorporation granted, or intended to be � granted, any ordinance should be made by the said corporation of Visitors and Governors or any matters done and transacted by the corporation contrary to the tenor hereof, it is enacted that although such ordinances, acts and doings shall in themselves be null and void, yet they shall not, however, in any courts of law, or by the General Assembly, be deemed, taken, interpreted or adjudged into an avoidance or forfeiture of this Charter and Act of Incorporation, but the same shall be and remain unhurt, inviolate and entire unto the said corporation of Visitors and Governors in perpetual succession; and all their acts conformable to the powers, true intent and meaning hereof shall be and remain in full force and validity, the nullity and avoidance of such illegal acts to the contrary in any wise notwithstanding. XVII. That this Charter and Act of Incorporation and every part thereof shall be good and available in all things in the law according to the true intent and meaning thereof, and shall be construed, reputed and adjudged in all cases most favorably on the behalf and for the best benefit and behoof of the said Visitors and Governors and their successors, so as most effectually to answer the valuable end of this Act of Incorporation towards the general advancement and promotion of useful knowledge, science and virtue. XVIII. That the College may establish and operate one or more branches in one or more states of the United States. �Polity of St. John's College Preamble Education is the making of men and women out of children by bringing them into the world of inherited customs, intellectual traditions, and spiritual ties. Institutions of learning are set up for this purpose. Beyond this they should also seek to develop the moral and intellectual powers of their students to enable them to fulfill best their freely chosen tasks and thus to take their own responsible part in shaping the future. St. John's College is a community of learning committed to holding these ends constantly in sight and to seeking the best means of attaining them. St. John's College strives to illuminate the common heritage of humanity in a persisting study of the great documents in which that heritage can be found. It is concerned with the unity of knowledge, an understanding of the great issues, and the moral foundations on which men and women may conduct their lives. To provide proper conditions for the pursuit of these ends, we, the Board of Visitors and Governors, after consultation with the Faculty, do ordain and establish this Polity for St. John's College. Article I THE COLLEGE (1) St. John's College is by its Charter a legal entity, carrying on its functions from its campuses in Annapolis, Maryland, and in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Under the Charter of the College, all power, authority, and responsibility pertaining to the College are vested in the Visitors and Governors. (2) The College consists of the following: The Board of Visitors and Governors, the Faculty, the Graduate and Undergraduate Students, the Alumni and the Staff, and other members who may be named from time to time by the Board of Visitors and Governors. (3) Under the Charter, "the said Visitors and Governors, and their successors, from time to time, and at all times hereafter, forever, shall have full power and authority to constitute and appoint, in such manner as they shall think best and most convenient, a principal and vice-principal of the said College, and professors, with proper tutors and assistants, for instructing the students and scholars of the said seminary in all the liberal arts and sciences, and in the ancient and modern tongues and languages; and the said principal, vice-principal, and professors, so constituted and appointed from time to time shall be known and distinguished forever as one learned body or faculty, by the name of 'The Principal, Vice-Principal, and Professors of St. John's College;' and by that name shall be capable of exercising such powers and authorities as the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors shall by their ordinances think necessary to delegate to them for the instruction, discipline, and government of the said seminary and of all the students, scholars, ministers and servants belonging to the same." (a) The "principal" shall be the Presidents. When 'President' is used in this Polity it shall mean: � (i) with respect to membership on the Board of Visitors and Governors, in the Faculty, on committees of the Board, and sitting ex officio with the Instruction Committee, and for presentation of, and response to, the Statement of Educational Policy and Program (Article V (l)(c)), the President of the Annapolis campus and the President of the Santa Fe campus; (ii) with respect to membership on committees or sitting ex officio with committees, and actions or procedures relating to one campus, the President of that campus; (iii) with respect to actions under Article II (13)(b) or actions or procedures involving the entire College under Article X (l)(a)(i) and Article X (l)(a)(iii), either President. (b) The "vice-principal" shall be the Dean who is serving as the Chair of the Instruction Committee. (c) There shall be a Dean of St. John's College in Annapolis and a Dean of St. John's College in Santa Fe. (d) The "professors, tutors and assistants" shall bear the title Tutor or Tutor Emeritus. Tutors who have completed their tenure appointments by retiring shall be Tutors Emeriti. (e) There shall be Vice-Presidents for Development and Alumni Relations and Treasurers and College-Wide Officials, as necessary, as provided in Article VII. (f) There shall be Associate members of the Faculty, hereinafter called Associates, as provided in Article VIII. (g) The "one learned body or faculty," composed of the Presidents, the Deans, the other Tutors, the Tutors Emeriti, the Vice-Presidents for Development and Alumni Relations, the Treasurers, and the Associates, shall bear the title the Faculty of St. John's College. (h) All who have formally matriculated, are at the present enrolled, and are in good standing shall be called Students of St. John's College. (i) The Associate Deans and the Tutors of the Graduate Institute shall be called the Faculty of the Graduate Institute. (j) All who have been awarded a degree by the College shall be called Alumni. In addition, all who have completed at least one semester of undergraduate study or at least one segment of Graduate Institute study, but who are not currently enrolled, shall be called Alumni either a) in the case of undergraduate students, when the class with which they matriculated has graduated, or b) in the case of Graduate Institute students, at the end of three full sessions of the Graduate Institute after the one in which they last enrolled. All who have been designated as honorary members of the Alumni Association of St. John’s College shall be called Alumni. All who have ever been Alumni shall continue to be. � (k) The Staff shall consist of all persons appointed by the President who are not members of the Faculty of St. John's College. (l) There shall be no discrimination at St. John's College in appointments, conditions of employment, admissions, educational policy, financial aid programs, athletics, or other activities, on the basis of race, religion, age, sex, national origin, color, disability and/or handicap, sexual orientation, or other characteristic protected by any applicable federal, state or local law. Article II VISITORS AND GOVERNORS (1) Qualifications for Membership. Persons shall be eligible for membership on the Board of Visitors and Governors who are concerned for the maintenance, progress, and vitality of St. John’s College’s educational program and who are willing and able to discharge the responsibilities of trusteeship with devotion and energy. (2) Members. The Board of Visitors and Governors shall consist of not more than thirty four members, comprising the Presidents, the Deans, the Governors of Maryland and New Mexico, and the President of the St. John’s College Alumni Association, ex officio, twenty-seven members, of whom not more than twenty-four shall be elected by the entire Board, and of whom not more than three shall be elected by the Alumni of the College, all in the manner and for the terms hereinafter provided. In recognition of meritorious service to the College, Visitors Emeriti may be elected to the Board who may attend all meetings of the Board, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. Retired members of the Board who have served six (6) terms on the Board as members in good standing may be designated as Honorary Board Members upon election by the Board. Honorary Board Members will receive minutes of the Plenary Sessions of the Board, may, as a guest, attend the Plenary Sessions of all regular meetings of the Board, and may be asked to assist on Board Committees. (3) Elections by the Board. At each annual meeting, the Board shall elect a class of members for a term of three years, to succeed those members whose term expires at the conclusion of said meeting. Those members elected shall begin their term upon the conclusion of the meeting of their election. The procedure for nomination and election shall be as follows: There shall be a Trustee and Governance Committee of the Board appointed by the Chair. The Chair and the Presidents shall sit with the committee, ex officio, when nominations to Board membership are being considered. The Trustee and Governance Committee shall recommend to each member of the Board in writing, not later than thirty days prior to the annual meeting at which the election is to be held, at least one candidate for each of the places to be filled by such election, including each position as an officer of the Board. Additional nominations may be made in writing, addressed to the Chair, signed by at least five members of the Board, prior to the date above provided for the report of the Trustee and Governance Committee, and any such additional nominations shall be reported to the Board by the Committee at the time of its report. � Voting on nominations at annual meetings may be by ballot, each member present to vote on said nominations. In case the balloting results in a tie for one or more positions, the Board shall determine the procedure to resolve the tie. No nominee for member or officer of the Board shall be deemed elected who has not received the affirmative votes of at least a majority of the members present at the meeting. If there should be fewer than eight members in any class prior to the end of the term for such class, any vacancy may be filled pursuant to the procedure provided above for regular elections, except that the election may take place at any regular meeting. A member elected to fill any such vacancy shall hold office for the remainder of the term of the class in which such vacancy occurred. (4) Elections by the Alumni. The voice of alumni being of particular value to the Board, each year one of the college’s alumni shall be elected to membership for a term of three years, in such manner that there shall be three members of the Board elected by the alumni, consisting of three classes of one member each. Outgoing members so elected shall continue to serve until their successors’ term of office begins. Such elections shall be conducted in accordance with the By-laws of the Alumni Association of St. John’s College. A representative of the Alumni Association Board shall consult with the Chair of the Trustee and Governance Committee of the Board of Visitors and Governors concerning the Association’s nominees and shall advise the Trustee and Governance Committee of its nominees in advance of the Board of Visitors and Governors’ mid-year meeting so that the organizations’ respective nominations can reasonably be coordinated. In the event that for any reason there should be fewer than one member so elected in any class prior to the end of the term of that class, the vacancy may be filled by the Alumni Association of St. John’s College. Newly elected alumni shall begin their terms immediately following the annual meeting of the Board. (5) Faculty Representation at Board Meetings. Three members of the Faculty shall be elected by the Faculty on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on the campus to which they belong, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (6) Student Representation at Board Meetings. Two students shall be elected by the Students on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on the campus to which they belong, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (7) Associate Dean for Graduate Programs Representation at Board Meetings. Each Associate Dean for Graduate Programs may attend all regular sessions of the Board on such Associate Dean’s campus, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (8) Graduate Institute Student Representation at Board Meetings. A student of the Graduate Institute shall be elected by the Students of the Graduate Institute on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on such student’s campus, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. � (9) Staff Representation at Board Meetings. The Staff on each campus shall be invited to send two representatives to all regular sessions of the Board at that campus, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (10) Reelection: A member of the Board elected by the Board or the Alumni may be elected for not more than two consecutive terms, but may, after a second consecutive term, be reelected by the Board or the Alumni to membership at their respective annual meetings in the year following the expiration of the member’s second term. Notwithstanding the foregoing, in extraordinary circumstances, the Trustee and Governance Committee may recommend the reelection of Board members for an additional term of up to three years. (11) Meetings of the Board. (a) The Board shall hold at least three regular meetings annually, at least one of which shall be held on each campus. The last meeting of the academic year shall be called the annual meeting. The time and place of regular meetings shall be determined by the Chair, in consultation with the President, and notice of regular meetings shall be given not less than fifteen days prior to such meetings. (b) Special meetings of the Board may be called by the President, the Chair, the Executive Committee, or any nine members of the Board, not less than seven days after the dispatch of written, faxed, or e-mail notice of the time, place, and purposes of the meeting. Such notice may be dispensed with if waived in writing by all members of the Board either before or after the meeting. (c) Any business may be conducted at a regular meeting without specific notice of such business (except that which is required by law or as provided herein as to elections and amendments), but no business shall be conducted at any special meeting unless notice of such business has been given, or has been waived as above provided. (d) One third of the members of the Board shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. (e) The Board in regular session is open to elected and ex officio members, to Visitors Emeriti, to Honorary Board Members as guests, to Associates and others invited by the President, and to official representatives of the Faculty, Students, Graduate Institute, and Staff. Attendance at Executive sessions shall be limited to voting members and Visitors Emeriti. Public sessions shall be open without restriction. The Chair of the Board, in consultation with the Presidents, shall determine whether any meeting or portion of a meeting shall be in regular, executive, or public session. (12) Officers of the Board. At each annual meeting the Board shall elect a Chair, Vice-Chair, and Secretary, to hold office until the next annual meeting or until their successors are elected. Vacancies in any such offices may be filled at any regular meeting, or any special meeting �called for that purpose. Such officers shall perform the customary duties of such offices, and such other duties as the Board may from time to time direct. (13) Committees of the Board. (a) Executive Committee. The Chair, Vice-Chair, Secretary, Presidents, Deans, Chairs of the Finance, Advancement, Visiting, and Trustee and Governance Committees, the immediate past Chair of the Board (for the remainder of the past Chair’s current Board term), and two other members chosen annually by the Board at the annual meeting shall comprise the Executive Committee of the Board. In intervals between meetings of the Board, the Executive Committee may act for the Board, except in those matters expressly delegated to some other committee, person, or persons. Eight members of the Executive Committee present at a meeting shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. The Executive Committee shall determine the compensation of the Vice Presidents, Treasurers, and all College-wide Officers. The Executive Committee shall recommend to the Board the compensation of the Presidents and shall also recommend to the Board the identity and tenure of the College-wide President. (b) Presidential Search Committee. There shall be a Presidential Search Committee to recommend the appointment of a President as provided in Article IV(2). (c) Trustee and Governance Committee. There shall be a Trustee and Governance Committee which shall be responsible for the nomination, orientation, and assessment of members of the Board as provided in Article II(3), and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall charge. (d) Visiting Committee. There shall be a Visiting Committee, which shall meet at least once annually with the Instruction Committee on one of the campuses. The Visiting Committee shall discuss the Statement of Educational Policy and Program of the Chair of the Instruction Committee and become acquainted with the aims of the College and how they are being realized, and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall charge. The Deans shall be members of the Committee, ex officio. (e) Finance Committee. There shall be a Finance Committee which shall be responsible for recommending to the Board the annual budgets, policies for the expenditures from endowments, major capital expenditures, and policies for the investment of College assets. � It shall be responsible for the oversight of the College’s financial matters, physical plant and compensation policies for faculty and staff, and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall charge. The Presidents, Treasurers, and Chair of the Board shall sit on the Committee, ex officio. (f) Audit and Compliance Committee. There shall be an Audit and Compliance Committee, including a Chair, appointed by the Chair of the Board. The Committee shall be responsible for the review in detail of the annual report of the independent auditors and the discussion of audit findings with the auditors, unattended by employees of the College. The Committee shall recommend to the Board the appointment or reappointment of independent auditors to conduct the audit for the next fiscal year. The Committee shall further be responsible for the regular review of compliance by the College with all applicable local, state and federal laws, rules and regulations. The Committee shall report to the Board annually on its review of the audit and of compliance matters, shall bring to the attention of the Board any matters related thereto requiring Board action, and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall determine. The Treasurers shall serve as non-voting Staff to the committee. (g) Polity Review Committee. There shall be a Polity Review Committee appointed by the Chair every fifth year. The Chair of the Board shall appoint one of the members to be Chair of the Committee. The Committee shall receive from the Faculty Committee an account of the Faculty’s vote on proposed amendments. The respective Chairs of the Board and Faculty Review Committees shall make such arrangements as they deem appropriate for joint consultation prior to and after the adoption of the report by the Faculty. (h) Advancement Committee. There shall be an Advancement Committee which shall be responsible for the oversight of the College’s fundraising, communications, and alumni relations functions, and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall determine. The Vice Presidents for Development and Alumni Relations shall be members of the Committee, ex officio. (i) Other Committees. The Chair may appoint such other standing or special committees of the Board as the Chair deems desirable or which the Board may request. (j) Former members of the Board and Visitors Emeriti may be appointed by and at the discretion of the Chair to serve on committees. (k) Except for the Presidential Search Committee and the Polity Review Committee, committee appointments shall be made annually. Members of the Committees serve until their successors have been appointed. (l) Any member of the Board may, without invitation, attend any Board committee meeting, except those of the Presidential Search, Trustee and Governance, and Executive Committees, but without vote. � (m)Whenever a Capital Campaign is in progress, its Chair shall be an ex-officio voting member of the Finance and Executive Committees. (14) Execution of Contracts, Transfer of Securities, Etc. All contracts of $50,000 or more, notes, deeds, leases, mortgages, releases, bonds for security or indemnity, negotiable instruments, stock certificates, transfers, and powers, and like papers and documents on behalf of the College or the Endowment Funds shall be executed by two persons, of whom one shall be the President, the Chair, or a Vice-Chair, and of whom the other shall be the Secretary of the Board or the Treasurer of the campus concerned. (15) Signing of checks, drafts, etc. All checks, drafts, acceptances, and similar orders for the payment of money on behalf of the College may be signed by the same persons authorized to execute contracts, etc., pursuant to Section (14) hereof, but may also be signed by such persons, and in such manner, as the Board may from time to time direct by appropriate resolution. (16) The College shall indemnify, to the full extent permitted by law, any current or former member of the Board or officer of the College or any person who, while a member of the Board or an officer of the College, may have served at the College’s request as a director, officer, partner or trustee of another entity, against any judgments, penalties, fines, settlements and reasonable expenses actually and necessarily incurred by him or her in connection with the defense of any action, suit or proceeding to which he or she is made a party by reason of being or having been such member of the Board or officer of the College. Article III THE FACULTY The Visitors and Governors by these ordinances hereby delegate to the Faculty of St. John's College, the Presidents, the Deans, the other Tutors, the Tutors Emeriti, the Vice-Presidents for Development and Alumni Relations, the Treasurers, College-wide Officials and the Associates "powers and authorities" for the "instruction, discipline, and government" of the College. Article IV THE FACULTY: THE PRESIDENT (1) There shall be a President for the Annapolis campus and a President for the Santa Fe campus, each appointed as provided in Article IV (2). There is delegated to each President by the Visitors and Governors executive responsibility and authority for the instruction, discipline, and government of the President’s campus, and the President, in turn, may delegate such authority. In the interest of the orderly conduct of business and of maintaining and promoting the unity of the College, the Presidents shall regularly consult and communicate with each other and, as appropriate, with other College officials, on matters of common concern. The � delegation of campus executive responsibility and authority made by the Visitors and Governors in this paragraph is not intended to be in derogation of Article XVIII of this Polity. (2) The President shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of a Committee composed of five members of the Board of Visitors and Governors appointed by the Chair of the Board, at least one of whom is an alumnus, the Deans, and one Tutor having tenure from each campus elected by the Faculty on that campus. This Committee shall be known as the Presidential Search Committee. It shall consult with the continuing President in a regular and timely fashion. Prior to making its final recommendation, it shall, on both campuses, consult with all other appropriate persons and shall arrange for the final candidates to meet with the Faculty and the Instruction Committee. (3) The President shall concurrently be a Tutor, but the provisions of Article VI need not apply. (4) The President and persons to whom the President delegates authority shall consult with the Deans, other appropriate persons, and appropriate Faculty committees in matters of policy, initiation of programs, and setting of priorities affecting the general welfare of the College. (5) There shall be a Financial Committee on each campus consisting of the President as Chair, the Dean and Treasurer of the campus, and other members the President may appoint. It will review proposed budgets prior to their being presented to the Finance Committee of the Board. It will also meet prior to Board meetings to review performance in the fiscal year to date and emerging budgetary strengths and weaknesses. (6) The President shall appoint, or delegate the power to appoint, other committees as may be necessary for the carrying out of the President’s duties for which no provision is made under Article IX. (7) If in the judgment of the Board of Visitors and Governors, the College is facing a financial exigency at either or both of its campuses which could call for a reduction in the number of Faculty positions, both Presidents shall immediately advise the Faculty of the nature and extent of the financial difficulty and consult with them concerning the best way to address the situation. The Faculty may then make a formal recommendation to the Presidents on ways to meet the problem, or, if the Faculty fails so to act, the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall propose a plan to the Presidents. The Presidents shall jointly then determine a plan which specifies a preferred course of action to be taken. All necessary steps must be taken in timely fashion as prescribed by the Board. Nothing herein provided shall limit the power of the Board to act otherwise in the event of need to reduce or eliminate Faculty positions. Article V THE FACULTY: THE CHAIR OF THE INSTRUCTION COMMITTEE AND THE DEANS (1) The Chair of the Instruction Committee. � (a) There is delegated to the Chair of the Instruction Committee responsibility and authority for the organization of the program of instruction in the liberal arts that is followed by the Tutors and the Students. (b) The Deans shall serve alternately, for a term of one year, as Chair of the Instruction Committee. (c) Each year the Chair of the Instruction Committee shall, after consultation with the Instruction Committee on the Chair’s campus, and after discussion with the Instruction Committee of the College, submit a Statement of Educational Policy and Program to the Faculty as a whole for discussion. The Presidents shall present the Statement, together with an account of the Faculty discussion of it, and their responses to it, as a report to the Board of Visitors and Governors for its consideration. (d) Should the Chair of the Instruction Committee or the Chair of the Board of Visitors and Governors deem it appropriate, the Chair of the Instruction Committee shall report to the Board on instructional matters, and shall respond to such questions as the Board, through its Chair, may ask. (2) The Deans. (a) There is delegated to the Deans on their respective campuses responsibility and authority for the supervision of the program of instruction and for the general welfare of the students and for whatever government of the students be necessary for the greatest possible attainment of aims of the program. Each Dean shall be the Chair of the Instruction Committee on such Dean’s campus. In carrying out the Dean’s duties, each Dean shall consult regularly with the President and with the Instruction Committee and the other appropriate Faculty committees on that campus. (b) The Deans shall be appointed for terms of five years from among the Tutors by the Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President after consultation with a special committee of seven, four from the campus for which the Dean is being chosen and three from the other campus, selected from among themselves by the Tutors having tenure. (c) A Dean shall be appointed from among the tutors who have themselves been appointed in accord with Article VI(3). If non-tenured, the appointee shall acquire tenure upon becoming Dean, in which case the provisions of Article VI(3)(a) regarding reappointment schedules shall not apply. (d) To assist them in carrying out their duties, the Deans shall recommend one or more Tutors to be appointed by the President with the title of Assistant Dean. (e) During the absence of the President from either campus, the Dean on that campus shall if necessary exercise the President's prerogative of final decision. � (f) During the absence of the Dean from either campus a Tutor with tenure named by the Dean shall act for the Dean. (g) The Dean on each campus shall appoint such committees as may be necessary for the carrying out of the Dean’s duties for which no other provision is made. Article VI THE FACULTY: THE TUTORS (1) The primary responsibilities of the Tutors are to teach and to make themselves as competent as possible in all parts of the St. John's Program. (2) The Tutors shall have authority to recommend to the Visitors and Governors candidates for degrees of their respective campuses. (3) Appointment and Reappointment of Tutors. Tutors shall be appointed by the Visitors and Governors upon recommendation of the President in accordance with the recommendation of the Dean and the Instruction Committee on that campus where the Tutors so appointed shall teach. (a) The schedule of regular appointment of Tutors on each campus shall be either (i)(A) or (i)(B) below, to be decided by the President in accordance with the recommendation of the Dean and the Instruction Committee on that campus where the Tutors so appointed shall teach: (i)(A) New Tutors shall be appointed for one year unless they are appointed at mid-year, in which case the initial appointment shall be for a year and a half. First reappointments shall be for one year. Second and third reappointments shall be for two and three years respectively. (i)(B) New Tutors shall be appointed for two years unless they are appointed at mid-year, in which case the initial appointment shall be for a year and a half. First and second reappointments shall be for two and three years respectively. (ii) A Tutor who has completed a three-year appointment must either be given a tenure appointment or not be reappointed as Tutor. A Tutor may, however, be given a tenure appointment as early as the conclusion of the first year of a three-year appointment. Procedures leading to a recommendation for an early tenure appointment shall be initiated by the Dean and Instruction Committee, but not without the consent of the appointee, and shall not prejudice subsequent consideration for a tenure appointment. Tenure appointments shall not continue beyond retirement. Tutors Emeriti shall retain their privileges and responsibilities in voting at Faculty meetings. � (iii) Before making recommendations to the President on tenure appointments the Dean on each campus shall consult with the Instruction Committee on that campus, after seeking the advice of the Tutors on that campus. (iv) A Tutor, to be recommended for a tenure appointment, must have served full-time at the campus where the recommendation is to be made for the two years immediately preceding the year in which that recommendation is made, the provisions of (ii) above notwithstanding. In ordinary cases, these two years of service will be the second year of a two-year appointment and the first year of a three-year appointment. These requirements may be waived by the President on the recommendation of the Dean and Instruction Committee on that campus. (b) A non-tenure appointment as Tutor establishes the possibility, but not the presumption, of its renewal and the granting of a tenure appointment. Procedures for considering non-tenure appointments differ from those for considering tenure appointments. Satisfaction of appointment criteria admits of degree. With each successive reappointment, the criteria are applied more rigorously. For a tenure appointment the application is especially strict. (c) For the purpose of temporary transfer between campuses, special appointments of one or two years may be granted to a Tutor in addition to his or her regular appointments. The Tutor may ask that such an appointment be counted as a regular appointment for the purpose of (a) above. In the case of a permanent transfer a Tutor may ask that years of service at the other campus be counted toward tenure according to the provisions of (a) above. Nevertheless, the provisions of (3)(a)(iv) prevail. (d) Special one-year appointments and reappointments may be given to Tutors who intend to teach on a part-time basis only. Such a Tutor may subsequently apply for and receive a regular appointment. Special part-time appointments may then be counted on a fractional basis toward eligibility for tenure, subject to the provisions of (3)(a)(iv). In establishing eligibility for sabbatical leave, special part-time appointments shall be computed proportionately. (e) Visiting Tutors may be appointed for a term or a year. (4) Notification. (a) A Tutor under consideration for a non-tenure appointment to begin in a certain calendar year shall be notified by the President no later than December 15th of the preceding calendar year whether reappointment will be recommended to the Board of Visitors and Governors. A Tutor who is reappointed shall be notified by the President by March 1st of the calendar year in which the new appointment is to begin. (b) A Tutor under consideration for a tenure appointment to begin in a certain calendar year shall be notified by the President no later than May 31st of the preceding calendar year whether the appointment will be recommended to the Board of Visitors and Governors. A � Tutor who is appointed shall be notified by the President by July 31st of that same preceding year. (5) A Tutor may apply to the Instruction Committee of the College not later than January 15th for a transfer of campus for the next academic year. Transfers shall require approval of both Deans after consultation with their Instruction Committees. (6) (a) A Tutor’s appointment may be terminated by the Board of Visitors and Governors for one of the following reasons only: (i) failure or inability to perform teaching duties in a satisfactory manner, or (ii) moral turpitude. The President shall make such a recommendation to the Board of Visitors and Governors only with the concurrence of the Dean and the Instruction Committee of the campus concerned. Before making such a recommendation, the President shall advise the Tutor affected, and the Tutor shall have the right to be heard by the Instruction Committee or, at the Tutor’s option, by another committee to be designated by the President for this purpose. (b) Either Dean, with the approval of the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned, may recommend to the President that in the interest of instruction a Tutor be temporarily relieved of duties in whole or in part at any time. When such action is taken, the Tutor's salary shall be continued for the remainder of the current academic year. (7) The sabbatical leave program is designed to provide Tutors with an opportunity for study, rest, and renewal of spirit, in anticipation of future teaching. It is the objective of the program to grant all applications for sabbatical leave meeting the conditions for eligibility set out in (a) of this section. It is understood that Tutors on such leave will not undertake full-time remunerative employment elsewhere and will return to the College. (a) Eligibility for sabbatical leave shall be upon the following conditions: (i) A Tutor who has received a tenure appointment may apply for a full year of sabbatical leave at full salary, to be taken upon completion of the equivalent of seven full years of service to the College since the original appointment, or the equivalent of six full years of service since any previous sabbatical leave. (ii) Such a Tutor may apply for an earlier sabbatical leave of a full year at partial salary, or a partial year at full salary. The fractional salary or fractional year shall be determined by the number of years of teaching completed in relation to the prescribed total for either an initial or a subsequent sabbatical leave, as the case may be. In no case shall a Tutor be paid more than the Tutor’s regular salary. (iii) Upon completion of sabbatical leave, a Tutor is expected to return to the College for at least two more years. � (b) If, in the judgment of the President, financial or academic needs at a campus should require that fewer sabbatical leaves be granted there in a given year than there are qualified applicants, and if the number that can be granted there should be smaller than one-sixth of the number of Tutors at that campus having tenure and not on full-time leave under the provisions of section (8) below, the President shall so notify the Board of Visitors and Governors and seek its approval for delaying a sabbatical leave for one or more of the applicants. (c) If in a year there are more qualified applicants for sabbatical leave at any one campus than there are leaves to be granted at that campus, then those members shall have precedence who meet the following conditions in the order set forth: (i) Those who have served for the greater number of years since their first appointment as Tutor or since their last sabbatical leave, whichever is more recent; (ii) Those whose service has been continuous throughout those years; (iii) Those whose last sabbatical leave was postponed because of the financial or academic needs of the College; (iv) Those who have seniority of appointment. When there is a conflict of precedence, the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned shall be consulted. (d) A Tutor eligible for sabbatical leave shall make application to the President before November 1st for leave to begin the following July 1st, and shall be informed of the action upon the application not later than January 1st. (8) The President, with the concurrence of the Dean after consultation with the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned, may grant leaves of absence to Tutors for a period of one year or less. At that time it shall be determined whether the leave shall be counted as service to the College with respect to eligibility for sabbatical leave and, if so, how. The decision with respect to a request for leave of absence shall be made in the light of the requirements both of the applicant Tutor and of the whole College. (a) Leave of absence may be renewed upon request but not more than twice in succession except in extraordinary circumstances. (b) A request for a leave of absence shall be submitted to the President as early as possible in the academic year before the year in which the leave is to be taken, but not later than January 15th of that year. Requests for leaves of absence may be withdrawn at any time prior to April 1st of the year in which the request is submitted. Requests for leaves of absence for the second semester must be submitted no later than October 15th. � (c) Tutors on sabbatical leave or leave of absence remain members of the Faculty with the right of full participation in Faculty meetings and all other College exercises. Article VII THE FACULTY: THE VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR DEVELOPMENT AND ALUMNI RELATIONS, THE TREASURERS, AND COLLEGE-WIDE OFFICIALS (1) The Vice-President for Development and Alumni Relations on each campus shall be responsible to the President for the supervision and development of all programs in fundraising, and alumni relations on their respective campuses. (2) The Vice-President for Development and Alumni Relations on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President made after consultation with the Dean on that campus. Upon the recommendation of the College-wide President, and approval of the Board of Visitors and Governors there may be a Senior Vice President for Development and Alumni Relations. (3) The Treasurers shall have charge, on their respective campuses, under the supervision of the President, of all funds and property, and shall have authority to carry out fiscal and property transactions, and to receive and disburse funds, subject to the provisions of this Polity and other directions and arrangements pursuant thereto. (4) The Treasurer on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President made after consultation with the Dean on that campus. (5) There shall be a College-wide Chief Financial Officer, appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors upon the recommendation of the College-wide President, in consultation with the two Deans. (6) The Executive Director of Enrollment Management shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the College-wide President, in consultation with the two Deans, and shall be responsible for the supervision of the Admissions and Financial Aid Directors (7) There shall be a Chief Communications Officer, appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors upon the recommendation of the College-wide President, in consultation with the two Deans. (8) The Vice-Presidents for Development and Alumni Relations, the Treasurers and other College-wide Officials may be appointed Tutors under the provisions of Article VI(3)(d). Article VIII � THE FACULTY: THE ASSOCIATES (1) Associate members of the Faculty on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President in consultation with the Dean of that campus. On each campus, the President shall have ultimate executive authority over the Associates. (2) Associates may be appointed Tutors under the provisions of Article VI(3)(d). � (3) The Associates on either campus may establish for themselves an Associates' Council for the purpose of considering College matters of concern to them and communicating with other members of the College. (4) The Associates' Councils may establish such committees as they deem appropriate. (5) There shall be the following Associates, as deemed necessary by the President on each campus, with the powers and responsibilities provided. (a) The Registrars. The Registrars shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses. They shall prepare and supervise the registration of students and shall be responsible for the academic records and schedules of students. (b) The Librarians. The Librarians shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the operation of the library. Appointments of professional members of the Library Staff shall be made upon the recommendation of the Librarian to the Dean on each campus. (c) The Director of Student Activities and the Director of Athletics. The Director of Student Activities and the Director of Athletics, as the case may be, shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for devising and directing programs of recreational activities. (d) The Directors of Admissions. The Directors of Admissions shall be responsible to the Executive Director of Enrollment Management for the administrative functions on their respective campuses . Since it belongs to the Deans to supervise the composition of the student body with a view to the conduct of the Program of Instruction, admissions policies will be decided in concert with the Deans, and the Deans shall have final authority over who is admitted. (e) The Directors of Alumni Relations. The Directors of Alumni Relations shall be responsible to the Vice-Presidents for Development and Alumni Relations. Their primary duty is to enable the College and the Alumni Association to be of service to alumni. (f) The Directors of Financial Aid. The Directors of Financial Aid shall be responsible to the Executive Director of Enrollment Management for the administration of financial aid programs. Since it belongs to the Deans to supervise the composition of the student body with a view to the conduct of the Program of Instruction, financial aid policies will be decided in concert with the Deans. (g) The Directors of Career Services. The Directors of Career Services shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for helping and counseling students with respect to graduate and professional schools and careers. (h) The Director of College Information Technology Services. The Director of College Information Technology Services shall be responsible to the College-wide Chief Financial Officer for the development and management of information services college-wide. � (i) The Directors of Laboratories. The Directors of Laboratories shall be responsible to the Dean, in consultation with the Laboratory archons, for training and directing the student laboratory assistants, designing experiments for the laboratory program, and purchasing and maintaining laboratory equipment. Article IX THE FACULTY: FACULTY COMMITTEES (1) College-wide Committees (a) The Instruction Committee (i) The Instruction Committee shares with its Chairs responsibility for the program of instruction of the College. It shall consist of twelve Tutors in addition to the Deans. The Presidents shall sit with the Committee ex officio. Six of the Tutors shall be elected from each campus of the College. The Instruction Committee shall meet annually. On each campus the members of the Instruction Committee and the Dean as Chair constitute the Instruction Committee of the College on that campus. The President sits ex officio with the Instruction Committee on each campus. (ii) Each of the members of the Instruction Committee shall serve for a term of three years, and the terms shall be arranged in such a way that each year the terms of two members at each campus shall expire. Terms begin and end the day following commencement exercises. Annually, and separately at each campus, the President with the Dean on his campus, after consulting with the Instruction Committee and seeking the advice of the other Tutors on that campus, shall at the last regular Faculty meeting on that campus nominate four Tutors of whom two shall be elected by the Tutors to membership on the Instruction Committee. The Faculty shall be informed of the names of the nominees prior to the meeting at which the election occurs. At the expiration of the three-year term a member of the Instruction Committee shall for one year be ineligible for reelection. (iii) If for any reason a member of the Instruction Committee is unable to serve for a part of his or her term, another Tutor shall be chosen to serve for that part of the term. For this purpose the President and the Dean, in consultation with the Instruction Committee on the campus where the vacancy occurs, shall nominate two Tutors of whom the Tutors shall elect one in a regular Faculty meeting. (iv) If the Instruction Committee resigns with the Deans on a matter of confidence and the resignations are accepted, the President, in consultation with the new Deans and after seeking the advice of the other Tutors, shall nominate nine Tutors for the six vacancies on each campus in such a manner that two out of each three nominees shall be elected by the Tutors for each of the three classes to fill the unexpired terms. � (b) (i) There shall be a Tutors' Compensation Committee of six Tutors, three to be elected by the Tutors on each campus, and the chair shall annually alternate between campuses. The Committee shall advise the Presidents concerning Tutors' compensation and related matters; it shall make annual reviews of the College's statement of Tutors' salaries and other compensation of Tutors and report to the Tutors and the Presidents recommendations consequent upon the review. The Tutors' Compensation Committee (ii) Members of the Committee shall be elected annually on each campus for terms of three years in such a manner that the term of one member on each campus terminates each year. The Tutors' Compensation Committee on each campus shall provide the Tutors on that campus with two nominations for each vacancy on the Committee on that campus. Additional nominations may be made at the Faculty meeting when election shall be made. (2) Campus-specific Committees (a) The Campus Planning Committees. The Faculty on each campus shall elect five of its members as a Campus Planning Committee. Two members shall be elected to the Committee annually except in every third year, when one member shall be chosen. The President, the Dean, one of the Assistant Deans, and the Treasurer on each campus shall sit ex officio with the Committee on that campus. It shall be the duty of the respective committees to advise the President on the construction of new buildings, the renovation of old buildings, landscaping of grounds, and all matters relating to the maintenance and development of the campus. (b) The Library Committees. The President on each campus, in consultation with the Librarian and the Dean, shall appoint three Tutors on each campus to serve as a Library Committee. The President, the Dean, and the Librarian shall themselves be ex officio members of the Committee, and the Librarian shall serve as Chair. It shall be the duty of the Library Committees to assist the Librarians in making the Libraries serve the ends of the College and its program; it shall be their duty to advise the Librarians in regard to Library policy and acquisitions. (c) The Information Technology Committees. The Dean on each campus shall appoint three Tutors to serve as an Information Technology Committee, one of whom shall serve as Chair. Each Tutor shall serve a three-year term. The Dean, the Director of College Information Technology Services, and the Librarian shall be ex officio members. It shall be the duty of the Information Technology Committees to advise the Director of College Information Technology Services in regard to the needs of the College and its Program. (d) The Prize Committees. The President on each campus shall appoint Tutors on each campus to supervise the awarding of prizes on the respective campuses. The � Committees shall have full authority to decide what prizes shall be awarded and to name the recipients of the prizes. (e) The Fellowship Committees. On each campus there shall be a Fellowship Committee appointed by the President. It shall be the duty of this Committee to inform students of fellowships for which they may be eligible, to assist them in applying for fellowships, and to act on behalf of the College in any matter relating to application for fellowships. (f) Other Committees. The Faculty on each campus shall have authority to elect, or to request the President to appoint, additional committees that may from time to time become necessary. Article X THE FACULTY: FACULTY PROCEDURE (1) Procedure for Instructional Proposals. (a) (i) Any proposal concerning matters of instruction that may affect the College as a whole shall originate with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on either campus. A decision as to whether a proposal is college-wide or campus-specific shall be made by the Deans and Instruction Committee of the College. They shall make this decision after notifying the Faculty on both campuses and inviting their comment. Written statements of college-wide instructional proposals shall be distributed to the Faculty at least two weeks before the Faculty meeting at which they are to be presented; the proposal shall be presented to the whole Faculty by the Chair of the Instruction Committee, either in person or through the other Dean. If, after full discussion of any proposal so presented, there be no objection on the part of any Tutor, the measure stands approved and becomes effective as of the date specified. If, after full discussion, a Tutor objects to the proposal and holds to the objection, the proposal shall be submitted to vote of the Tutors at special Faculty meetings called by the Presidents within a month. Any objections that have been made and held to and submitted in writing shall be transmitted immediately in writing to the whole faculty. Any objections that have been made and held to but not submitted in writing shall be reported immediately in writing to the whole Faculty. If, after discussion, any objection has been made and held to, the Presidents, in calling special Faculty meetings, shall report the statement of the Chair of the Instruction and the Dean on the other campus as to whether it be a matter of confidence; and in submitting the proposal to vote, the Chair of the Instruction Committee and the Dean on the other campus shall, at the special Faculty meetings, repeat their statement as to whether it be a matter of confidence. The vote may then be taken and tallied by the Presidents in such a fashion that the Tutors shall have recorded their decision acting as a whole. If the proposal be one that the Chair of the � Instruction Committee and the other Dean have declared a matter of confidence and if it be defeated by majority vote, the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall immediately resign. If it be passed by majority vote, it shall become effective as of the date specified therefore. For the confidence procedure a quorum shall consist of three-fourths of all resident Tutors on each campus. (ii) Any instructional proposal that has been deemed campus-specific shall be subject to the procedure set forth above, except that, if an objection is made and held to on either campus, voting shall proceed only on the campus were the proposal is intended to be put into effect. Any objections that have been made and held to and submitted in writing on the other campus shall be transmitted immediately to the voting Faculty. Any objections that have been made and held to but not submitted in writing shall be reported immediately in writing to the voting Faculty. If the confidence procedure is invoked, it shall be only by the Dean on the voting campus, and it shall affect the Dean and the Instruction Committee only on that campus. (iii) The President may refuse to accept the resignation of the Deans or the Instruction Committee, any or all of them, whenever in the judgment of the President such resignation would be detrimental to the proper functioning of the College; provided, however, that if any six or more Tutors shall petition the Visitors and Governors, the latter shall review the President's decision within four weeks, during which time the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall continue in office. (iv) In the event that the proposal be defeated and the resignations be accepted, the President shall proceed to the choice of new Deans in accordance with the provisions of Article V (2)(b). (b) Upon either a petition of not less than one-tenth of the Tutors on either campus or a request from the President, the Dean and Instruction Committee on that campus shall consider any recommendation concerning instruction and shall report to the Faculty within one year concerning it. If the Dean and Instruction Committee make a proposal, the procedure of Article X(1) shall apply. (2) Faculty Meetings. (a) Regular monthly meetings of the Faculty shall be called upon due notice by the President; except that in the period comprising the months of December and January only one regular meeting need be called. The President or, in his absence, the Dean, shall preside. In the absence of the President and the Dean, the Faculty shall elect one of its members to preside. (b) Special meetings of the Faculty may be called upon due notice by the President alone or at the request of five Faculty members. (c) Due notice shall be construed to mean no less than three days notice, except in cases of emergency. � (d) A quorum shall consist of a majority of the Faculty in residence except as otherwise provided. (e) Only Tutors may vote on instructional matters. All Faculty members may vote on all other matters not specifically restricted in the Polity. (3) The Secretary of the Faculty. At the last regular meeting of an academic year, the Faculty on each campus shall elect one of its members, then in at least his or her third year at the College, as Secretary. The Secretary shall assist in the preparation and circulation of the agenda for Faculty meetings, shall keep the minutes of such meetings, and shall collect and circulate reports of Faculty committees. Article XI THE SCHOLARS-IN-RESIDENCE AND THE ARTISTS-IN-RESIDENCE The Scholars-in-Residence and the Artists-in-Residence shall be appointed from time to time by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President after consultation with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the campus where the Scholars and Artists shall reside. Article XII THE STUDENTS (1) The primary responsibilities of the Students are to study and to make themselves as competent as possible in all parts of the St. John's Program. Their advice and service shall be sought by the Faculty in such matters and in such ways as may best serve the general welfare of the College. (2) The Students of St. John's College shall constitute the Student Polity of St. John's College in Annapolis and in Santa Fe. (3) The Student Polity in Annapolis or Santa Fe may establish for itself a government which is representative of all polity members. The Dean on each campus may delegate to the Student government a share of the responsibility for the general welfare of the Students and whatever government of the Students may be necessary for the greatest possible attainment of the aims of the program. The duties of the Student Government may include: (a) the management of funds available to the Student Polity; (b) the sanctioning of all student clubs, organizations, and activities, and their regulation, if necessary; � (c) the representation of the Students of St. John's College to the community outside the College; (d) the establishment and maintenance of formal channels of communication between the Students and the Faculty; and (e) any other duties agreed upon by the Students and the Dean. Article XIII THE GRADUATE INSTITUTE (1) The Associate Deans for Graduate Programs. (a) There shall be an Associate Dean for Graduate Programs on each campus to whom shall be delegated responsibility and authority, under the Chair of the Instruction Committee, for the organization and supervision on the Associate Dean’s campus of the graduate program of instruction in the liberal arts and for matters concerning the general welfare of the students. Concerning matters that affect the Graduate Institute as a whole the Associate Dean shall, in consultation with the other Associate Dean, be responsible to the Chair of the Instruction Committee. Concerning matters limited to one campus, the Associate Dean on that campus shall be responsible to the Dean on that campus. (b) The Associate Deans shall be appointed for terms of four years from among the Tutors by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President, after consultation with the Deans and a special committee consisting of five members, three from the campus on which the new Associate Dean will serve, and two from the other campus, selected from among themselves by the Tutors having tenure. (c) Every three years, in alternation, one of the Associate Deans shall write a Statement of Educational Policy and Program for the Graduate Institute. The Associate Dean who writes the Statement, after consulting with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on his or her campus, and with the other Associate Dean, shall submit the Statement to the Instruction Committee for discussion at its joint meeting. Should an Associate Dean be asked to write a statement in the first year of his or her term, the Associate Dean may delay this statement for a year. In such a case, the other Associate Dean shall write his or her statement in the following year. (2) The Faculty Teaching in the Graduate Institute. (a) Each Associate Dean, after consultation with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on that campus, and in accordance with the recommendation of the Instruction Committee on the same campus, shall recommend to the President Tutors for appointment in the summer session of the Graduate Institute. � (b) During the summer term the Tutors teaching in the Graduate Institute on each campus shall have the authority to recommend to the Board of Visitors and Governors candidates for degrees. (3) Committees for the Graduate Institute. (a) On each campus the Committee for the Graduate Institute shares with the Associate Dean on the same campus responsibility for carrying out the Graduate programs of instruction and for the general welfare of the students. (b) Each Committee shall consist of three Tutors who have experience in the Institute, in addition to the Associate Dean, who shall serve as Chair. (c) Members of each Committee shall be appointed by the Associate Dean with the concurrence of the Dean on the same campus after consultation with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on that campus. (4) Proposals concerning matters of instruction or policy shall originate with one of the Associate Deans, after consultation with the other Associate Dean and with the Committee for the Graduate Institute, and shall be submitted to the Dean on the originating campus for handling in accordance with Article X(l)(a)(i). Article XIV THE ALUMNI (1) Alumni shall be life-long members of the College, since St. John's College is a community not limited by geographical location or fixed periods of time. (2) The Alumni Association is the formal means by which Alumni participate in the life of the College. Through the election of alumni members of the Board of Visitors and Governors, Alumni share in the direction of that life. In these and other ways, Alumni shall be given the opportunity to serve the College. (3) The College shall cooperate with the Alumni Association to enable Alumni to assist in providing services such as recruiting and interviewing prospective students, placing graduates in appropriate employment, and advising students concerning careers and admission to graduate and professional schools. (4) The College, in cooperation with the Alumni Association, shall provide seminars and other appropriate educational activities in Annapolis, in Santa Fe, and in other places. �Article XV THE STAFF (1) Members of the Staff assist with the administration and maintenance of the College, performing duties necessary to its well-being. They are subject to appropriate Staff rules and regulations. (2) Members of the Staff on either campus may establish for themselves a Staff Council for the purpose of better communication and understanding of College policies as a benefit to the College as a whole. The Staff Council shall seek to establish and maintain formal channels of communication among the whole Staff and between the Staff and the appropriate College Officers. The Treasurer on each campus shall review Staff employment regulations with the Staff Council and discuss with them any changes proposed. (3) The Staff Council may establish such committees as it deems appropriate. Article XVI AMENDMENTS AND REVIEW (1) Amendments to this Polity may be proposed by a majority of the Board Polity Review Committee, or by a petition submitted by not fewer than ten percent of the members of the Board, or by the Faculty as provided for in section (2) and (3) below. Written notice of a proposed amendment must be provided to the Board and to the Faculty not less than 30 days prior to the date of the Board meeting at which the amendment is to be considered. The Faculty shall have the right to inform the Board in writing of its recommendation with respect to the proposed amendment by the time of that meeting. This Polity may be amended by a two-thirds vote of those members voting at any regular or special meeting of the Board, provided that the votes of no fewer than one-third of the members of the entire Board eligible to vote are in favor of such amendment. (2) Amendments may be proposed at any regular meeting of either the Faculty in Annapolis or the Faculty in Santa Fe upon petition of not less than ten percent of the members on either campus. No such proposal shall be acted upon earlier than the next regular meeting of the Faculty, whether in Annapolis or in Santa Fe. A two-thirds vote of the entire Faculty in residence, including at least a simple majority vote of the Faculty in residence on each of the campuses, shall be required for approval and the amendment shall not become effective unless approved by the Board in the manner set forth in Section (1) above. (3) Every five years this Polity shall be reviewed by a committee of six, three to be elected by the Faculty on each campus. The report of the Committee shall be submitted to one regular Faculty meeting and voted upon at the next regular Faculty meeting. A two-thirds vote of the entire Faculty in residence, including at least a simple majority vote of the Faculty in residence on each of the campuses, shall be required for approval of any proposed amendments. � Whatever action is thus recommended by the Faculty shall be submitted to the Board for final decision in the manner set forth in Section (1) above. Article XVII COMPLIANCE WITH LAW No provision of this Polity shall be construed to contravene any applicable federal or state law. If any provision is determined to contravene any such law, that provision shall be deemed not a part of this Polity, and this Polity's remaining provisions shall remain in full force and effect. Article XVIII COLLEGE-WIDE MANAGEMENT St. John’s College is one college, with two campuses. The officers of the College shall manage its resources in such a way as to strengthen the College, and thereby improve each campus, in a collegial manner and making due allowance for campus flexibility. (1) The Board of Visitors and Governors shall appoint one of the Presidents as a College-wide President, with the title “President, St. John’s College.” a. The term of the College-wide President shall be up to four years. b. All College-wide associates and College-wide officers shall report to the College-wide President, and the College-wide President shall have the authority to determine policies and supervise the execution of policies in those College-wide matters supervised by the College-wide associates and officers. c. The College-wide President shall have a cabinet consisting of the College-wide President as chair, the other President, the two Deans, the College-wide Financial Officer, and other members whom the College-wide President may appoint. It will review proposed budgets prior to their being presented to the Finance Committee of the Board. It will also meet prior to Board meetings to review performance in the fiscal year to date and emerging budgetary strengths and weaknesses. d. The College-wide President shall not have executive authority over instructional matters assigned to the Instruction Committee and its Chair under Articles V and IX(1) of the Polity. (2) The President of the other campus shall have the title “President, St. John’s College, Santa Fe” or “President, St. John’s College, Annapolis” as appropriate. The President shall assist the College-wide President in his or her formulation and execution of College-wide policies, and report to the Board concerning matters specific to his or her campus. (3) The following persons are Officers of the College: a. The Presidents b. The Deans c. The College-wide Chief Financial Officer, and the Treasurers d. Any other individual with the title of “Vice President.” � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Charter and Polity of the College Description An account of the resource Revised and amended editions of the St. John's College Charter and Polity.<br /><br />The College's first Charter and Polity was published as the <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/3768">September 1950</a> issue of the <em><a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/collections/show/37">Bulletin of St. John's College in Annapolis</a></em>. Revised and amended versions were published as individual issues of the <em>Bulletin</em> in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/3746">1951</a>, <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7844">1960</a>, <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7845">1963</a>, and <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7846">1965</a>. <br /><br />The Charter and Polity was published as a separate document in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7850">1955</a> and again from <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7851">1970</a> forward. The most recent version of the Charter and Polity is also available on the College's <a href="https://www.sjc.edu/about/leadership/board-visitors-governors/charter-polity">website</a>. <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Items in the Charter and Polity of the College Collection" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?tags=Charter+and+Polity&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate">Items in the Charter and Polity of the College Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data PDF Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 32 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Charter and Polity of the College, 2016 Description An account of the resource Charter and Polity of the College, amended and restated June 2016. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Santa Fe, NM Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-06 Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Subject The topic of the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Legal instruments Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Charter_and_Polity_2016 Charter and Polity https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/ee6e3eb59a4ca06c725759578de1cc7e.pdf f8fbea133d775c82204224f383373033 PDF Text Text Charter and Polity of the College ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND ~ SANTA FE, NEW MEXICO Amended and Restated November 2019 Founded as King William’s School, 1696 Chartered as St. John’s College, 1784 �Since this Polity can be amended between printings, the current official Polity is kept in the offices of the Presidents of St. John's College. HISTORY St. John's College was founded in 1696 as King William's School in accordance with a Petitionary Act for free-schools of the General Assembly of the Colony of Maryland. Following the Revolutionary War, the General Assembly of the new State of Maryland granted a Charter to St. John's College pursuant to and as a part of Chapter 37 of the Laws of Maryland of 1784. This Charter was subsequently amended by the General Assembly through Resolution No. 41 of 1832. The Visitors and Governors of St. John's College in 1950 revised the Charter to eliminate extraneous and obsolete matter and to make certain other amendments consistent with present requirements and conditions. It was the opinion of the Attorney General of Maryland that the original Charter of the College was subject to the general Corporation Laws of Maryland and might accordingly be amended by the Visitors and Governors, pursuant to these laws, without legislative action by the General Assembly. Subsequent amendments were made in 1961, in 1963, in 1965, in 1970, and in 1975. When the decision was reached to establish a second St. John's College in Santa Fe, New Mexico, amendments were made to the Charter to authorize branches or extensions of the College. The Charter was then filed with the Corporations Commission of the State of New Mexico as a foreign corporation. The College was thus empowered to grant degrees in New Mexico under the provisions of its Maryland Charter. A Polity for the College was first suggested at a faculty meeting in 1943 by the Dean. A faculty committee was elected and drafted a Polity, which was then promulgated by the President. In April 1949 the Faculty elected a committee to revise the Polity. The resulting document was approved by the Faculty on April 9, 1950, and was adopted by the Board of Visitors and Governors on July 8, 1950. Subsequent quinquennial reviews were made by elected faculty committees, and desired amendments were recommended by the Faculty to the Board of Visitors and Governors. The Polity was thus amended at regular meetings of the Board held on May 14, 1955; May 21, 1960; May 15, 1965; June 6, 1970; April 19, 1975; January 16, 1982; April 19, 1986; and October 19, 1991. Other amendments were adopted by the Board at regular meetings on February 22 and December 9, 1961; February 23 and September 28, 1963; October 3, 1970; February 18, 1972; October 25, 1975; January 24, 1976; November 6, 1982; July 21, 1984; April 20, 1985; October 25, 1986; April 11, 1987; October 19, 1991; July 18, 1992; April 17, 1993; April 22, 1995; April 19, 1996; April 24, 1999, and November 6, 1999; January 27, 2001, April 26, 2003; April 24, 2004; January 27, 2006; April 22, 2006; April 25, 2009; April 24, 2010, October 29, 2011, February 23, 2013, June 17, 2016, and November 9, 2019. ii �CHARTER OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE WHEREAS, institutions for the liberal education of youth in the principles of virtue, knowledge and useful literature are of the highest benefit to society, in order to train up and perpetuate a succession of able and honest men for discharging the various offices and duties of life, both civil and religious, with usefulness and reputation, and such institutions of learning have accordingly been promoted and encouraged by the wisest and best regulated States; And whereas, it appears to this General Assembly that many public spirited individuals, from an earnest desire to promote the founding a college or seminary of learning on the Western Shore of this State have subscribed and procured subscriptions to a considerable amount, and there is reason to believe that very large additions will be obtained to the same throughout the different counties of the said Shore, if they were made capable in law to receive and apply the same towards founding and carrying on a college or general seminary of learning with such salutary plan and with such legislative assistance and direction as the General Assembly might think fit, and this General Assembly, highly approving those generous exertions of individuals, are desirous to embrace the present favorable occasion of peace and prosperity for making lasting provision for the encouragement and advancement of all useful knowledge and literature through every part of this State; BE IT ENACTED: II. That a college or general seminary of learning by the name of "St. John's College" be established on the said Western Shore upon the following fundamental and inviolable principles; namely, first, the said college shall be founded and maintained forever upon a most liberal plan for the benefit of youth of every religious denomination, who shall be freely admitted to equal privileges and advantages of education and to all the literary honors of the college, according to their merit without requiring or enforcing any religious or civil test, or urging their attendance upon any particular religious worship or service other than what they have been educated in or have the consent and approbation of their parents or guardians to attend; nor shall any preference be given in the choice of a Principal, Vice-Principal or other Professor, Master or Tutor in said college on account of his particular religious profession, having regard solely to his moral character and literary abilities and other necessary qualifications to fill the place for which he shall be chosen. IV. That the governing body or board of said College shall consist of not more than sixty nor less than thirteen Visitors and Governors, to be chosen and to hold office in such manner as the said Visitors and Governors may determine and prescribe by their fundamental ordinances; provided, however, that the Governors of the States of Maryland and New Mexico shall act ex officio as two of the total number of Visitors and Governors of said college during their respective terms in said offices; and that the said Visitors and Governors and their successors duly chosen shall be and are hereby declared to be one community, corporation and body politic to have continuance forever by the name of ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE and by the same name they shall have perpetual succession. iii �VII. That if the City of Annapolis should be fixed upon as a proper place for establishing the said intended college, this General Assembly give and grant, and upon that condition do hereby give and grant to the Visitors and Governors of the said College by the name of "The Visitors and Governors of Saint John's College in the State of Maryland," and their successors all that four acres within the City of Annapolis purchased for the use by the public and conveyed on the 2nd day of October, 1744, by Stephen Bordley, Esq., to Thos. Bladen, Esq., then Governor, to have and to hold the said four acres of land with the appurtenances to the said Visitors and Governors and their successors for the only use, benefit and behoof of the said college and seminary of universal learning forever. VIII. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors by the same name shall be able and capable in law to purchase, have and enjoy to them and their successors in fee, or for any other less estate or estates, any lands, tenements, rents, annuities, pensions or other hereditaments by the gift, grant, bargain, sale, alienation, enfeoffment, release, confirmation, or devise of any person or persons, bodies politic or corporate capable to make the same, and such lands, tenements, rents, annuities, pensions or other hereditaments or any less estates, rights or interests of or in the same at their pleasure to grant, alien, sell and transfer in such manner and form as they shall think meet and convenient for the furtherance of the said college; And also that they may take and receive any sum or sums of money, and any kind, manner or portion of goods and chattels that shall be given, sold or bequeathed to them by any person or persons, bodies politic or corporate capable to make a gift, sale or bequest thereof and employ the same towards erecting, setting up and maintaining the said college in such manner as they shall judge most necessary and convenient for the instruction, improvement and education of youth in the vernacular and learned languages, and generally in any kind of literature, arts and sciences, which they shall think proper to be taught for training up good, useful and accomplished men for the service of their country, in church and state. IX. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors by the name aforesaid shall be able in law to sue and be sued, plead and be impleadable in any court or courts, before any judge, judges, or justices within this State and elsewhere in all and all manner of suits, complaints, pleas, causes, matters and demands of whatsoever kind, nature or form they be and all and every other matter and thing therein to do in as full and effectual a manner as any other person or persons, bodies politic or corporate within this State or any of the United States of America in like cases may or can do. X. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors shall have full power and authority to have, make and use one common and public seal and likewise one privy seal with such devices and inscriptions as they shall think proper, and to ascertain, fix and regulate the uses of both seals, by their own laws and the same seals or either of them to change, break, alter and renew at their pleasure. XI. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors from time to time and at all times hereafter, forever, shall have full power and authority to constitute and appoint in such manner as they shall think best and most convenient, a principal, a vice-principal of the said college and professors with proper tutors and assistants for instructing the students and scholars of the said seminary in all the liberal arts and sciences, and in the ancient and modem tongues and iv �languages; and the said principal, vice-principal and professors so constituted and appointed from time to time shall be known and distinguished forever as one learned body or faculty by the name of "The Principal, Vice-Principal and Professors of St. John's College"; and by that name shall be capable of exercising such powers and authorities as the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors shall by their ordinances think necessary to delegate to them for the instruction, discipline and government of the said seminary and of all the students, scholars, ministers and servants belonging to the same. XIV. That a majority of the said Visitors and Governors for the time being and duly assembled at any meeting upon due notice given to the whole body of Visitors and Governors shall have full power and authority to make fundamental ordinances for the government of the said college and the instruction of youth as aforesaid, and by these ordinances to appoint such a number of their own body not less than seven, as they may think proper for transacting all general and necessary business of the said seminary and making temporary rules for the government of the same; and also by the said fundamental ordinances to delegate to the principal, vice-principal and professors such powers and authorities as they may think best for the standing government of the said seminary and of the execution of the ordinances and rules of the same; provided always that they be not repugnant to the form of government of any law of this State. XV. And for animating and encouraging the students of said college to a laudable diligence, industry and progress in useful literature and science, be it enacted that the said Visitors and Governors and their successors shall by a written mandate under their privy seal and the hand of someone of the Visitors and Governors to be chosen annually as their President, according to the ordinance to be made for that purpose, have full power and authority to direct the principal, vice-principal and professors to hold public commencements either on stated annual days, or occasionally as the future ordinances of the said seminary may direct and at such commencements to admit any of the students in the said college or any other persons meriting the same (whose names shall be severally inserted in the same mandate) to any degree or degrees in any of the faculties, arts and sciences and liberal professions to which persons are usually admitted in other colleges or universities in America or Europe; And it is hereby enacted that the principal, or in the case of his death or absence, the vice-principal, and in case of the death or absence of both, the senior professor who may be present, shall make out and sign with his name diplomas or certificates of the admission to such degree or degrees, which shall be sealed with the public or greater seal of the said corporation or college and delivered to the graduates as honorable and perpetual testimonials of such admission; which diplomas, if thought necessary for doing greater honor to such graduates, shall also be signed with the names of the different professors or as many of them as can conveniently sign the same; provided always that no student or students within the said college shall ever be admitted to any such degree or degrees, or have their name inserted in any mandate for a degree, until such student or students have been first duly examined, and thought worthy of the same. XVI. That the ordinances which shall be from time to time made by the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors with an account of their other proceedings and of the management of the estate and moneys committed to their trust, shall when required be laid before the General Assembly for their inspection and examination, but in case at any time hereafter through oversight, or otherwise through misapprehension and mistaken constructions v �of the powers, liberties and franchises in this Charter or Act of Incorporation granted, or intended to be granted, any ordinance should be made by the said corporation of Visitors and Governors or any matters done and transacted by the corporation contrary to the tenor hereof, it is enacted that although such ordinances, acts and doings shall in themselves be null and void, yet they shall not, however, in any courts of law, or by the General Assembly, be deemed, taken, interpreted or adjudged into an avoidance or forfeiture of this Charter and Act of Incorporation, but the same shall be and remain unhurt, inviolate and entire unto the said corporation of Visitors and Governors in perpetual succession; and all their acts conformable to the powers, true intent and meaning hereof shall be and remain in full force and validity, the nullity and avoidance of such illegal acts to the contrary in any wise notwithstanding. XVII. That this Charter and Act of Incorporation and every part thereof shall be good and available in all things in the law according to the true intent and meaning thereof, and shall be construed, reputed and adjudged in all cases most favorably on the behalf and for the best benefit and behoof of the said Visitors and Governors and their successors, so as most effectually to answer the valuable end of this Act of Incorporation towards the general advancement and promotion of useful knowledge, science and virtue. XVIII. That the College may establish and operate one or more branches in one or more states of the United States. vi �Polity of St. John's College Preamble Education is the making of men and women out of children by bringing them into the world of inherited customs, intellectual traditions, and spiritual ties. Institutions of learning are set up for this purpose. Beyond this they should also seek to develop the moral and intellectual powers of their students to enable them to fulfill best their freely chosen tasks and thus to take their own responsible part in shaping the future. St. John's College is a community of learning committed to holding these ends constantly in sight and to seeking the best means of attaining them. St. John's College strives to illuminate the common heritage of humanity in a persisting study of the great documents in which that heritage can be found. It is concerned with the unity of knowledge, an understanding of the great issues, and the moral foundations on which men and women may conduct their lives. To provide proper conditions for the pursuit of these ends, we, the Board of Visitors and Governors, after consultation with the Faculty, do ordain and establish this Polity for St. John's College. Article I THE COLLEGE (1) St. John's College is by its Charter a legal entity, carrying on its functions from its campuses in Annapolis, Maryland, and in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Under the Charter of the College, all power, authority, and responsibility pertaining to the College are vested in the Visitors and Governors. (2) The College consists of the following: The Board of Visitors and Governors, the Faculty, the Graduate and Undergraduate Students, the Alumni and the Staff, and other members who may be named from time to time by the Board of Visitors and Governors. (3) Under the Charter, "the said Visitors and Governors, and their successors, from time to time, and at all times hereafter, forever, shall have full power and authority to constitute and appoint, in such manner as they shall think best and most convenient, a principal and viceprincipal of the said College, and professors, with proper tutors and assistants, for instructing the students and scholars of the said seminary in all the liberal arts and sciences, and in the ancient and modern tongues and languages; and the said principal, vice-principal, and professors, so constituted and appointed from time to time shall be known and distinguished forever as one learned body or faculty, by the name of 'The Principal, Vice-Principal, and Professors of St. John's College;' and by that name shall be capable of exercising such powers and authorities as the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors shall by their ordinances think necessary to delegate to them for the instruction, discipline, and government of the said seminary and of all the students, scholars, ministers and servants belonging to the same." 7 �(a) The "principal" shall be the Presidents. When 'President' is used in this Polity it shall mean: (i) with respect to membership on the Board of Visitors and Governors, in the Faculty, on committees of the Board, and sitting ex officio with the Instruction Committee, and for presentation of, and response to, the Statement of Educational Policy and Program (Article V (l)(c)), the President of the Annapolis campus and the President of the Santa Fe campus; (ii) with respect to membership on committees or sitting ex officio with committees, and actions or procedures relating to one campus, the President of that campus; (iii) with respect to actions under Article II (13)(b) or actions or procedures involving the entire College under Article X (l)(a)(i) and Article X (l)(a)(iii), either President. (b) The "vice-principal" shall be the Dean who is serving as the Chair of the Instruction Committee. (c) There shall be a Dean of St. John's College in Annapolis and a Dean of St. John's College in Santa Fe. (d) The "professors, tutors and assistants" shall bear the title Tutor or Tutor Emeritus. Tutors who have completed their tenure appointments by retiring shall be Tutors Emeriti. (e) There shall be Vice Presidents and other officials, as necessary, as provided in Article VII. (f) There shall be Associate members of the Faculty, hereinafter called Associates, as provided in Article VIII. (g) The "one learned body or faculty," composed of the Presidents, the Deans, the other Tutors, the Tutors Emeriti, the Vice Presidents, the College-wide Officials, and the Associates, shall bear the title the Faculty of St. John's College. (h) All who have formally matriculated, are at the present enrolled, and are in good standing shall be called Students of St. John's College. (i) The Associate Deans and the Tutors of the Graduate Institute shall be called the Faculty of the Graduate Institute. (j) All who have been awarded a degree by the College shall be called Alumni. In addition, all who have completed at least one semester of undergraduate study or at least one segment of Graduate Institute study, but who are not currently enrolled, shall be called Alumni either a) in the case of undergraduate students, when the class with which they matriculated has graduated, or b) in the case of Graduate Institute students, at the end of three full sessions of the Graduate Institute after the one in which they last enrolled. All who have been designated as honorary members of the Alumni Association of St. John’s 8 �College shall be called Alumni. All who have ever been Alumni shall continue to be. (k) The Staff shall consist of all persons appointed by the President who are not members of the Faculty of St. John's College. (l) There shall be no discrimination at St. John's College in appointments, conditions of employment, admissions, educational policy, financial aid programs, athletics, or other activities, on the basis of race, religion, age, sex, national origin, color, disability and/or handicap, sexual orientation, or other characteristic protected by any applicable federal, state or local law. Article II VISITORS AND GOVERNORS (1) Qualifications for Membership. Persons shall be eligible for membership on the Board of Visitors and Governors who are concerned for the maintenance, progress, and vitality of St. John’s College’s educational program and who are willing and able to discharge the responsibilities of trusteeship with devotion and energy. (2) Members. The Board of Visitors and Governors shall consist of not more than thirty four members, comprising the Presidents, the Deans, the Governors of Maryland and New Mexico, and the President of the St. John’s College Alumni Association, ex officio, twentyseven members, of whom not more than twenty-four shall be elected by the entire Board, and of whom not more than three shall be elected by the Alumni of the College, all in the manner and for the terms hereinafter provided. In recognition of meritorious service to the College, Visitors Emeriti may be elected to the Board who may attend all meetings of the Board, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. Retired members of the Board who have served six (6) terms on the Board as members in good standing may be designated as Honorary Board Members upon election by the Board. Honorary Board Members will receive minutes of the Plenary Sessions of the Board, may, as a guest, attend the Plenary Sessions of all regular meetings of the Board, and may be asked to assist on Board Committees. (3) Elections by the Board. At each annual meeting, the Board shall elect a class of members for a term of three years, to succeed those members whose term expires at the conclusion of said meeting. Those members elected shall begin their term upon the conclusion of the meeting of their election. The procedure for nomination and election shall be as follows: There shall be a Trustee and Governance Committee of the Board appointed by the Chair. The Chair and the Presidents shall sit with the committee, ex officio, when nominations to Board membership are being considered. The Trustee and Governance Committee shall recommend to each member of the Board in writing, not later than thirty days prior to the annual meeting at which the election is to be held, at least one candidate for each of the places to be filled by such election, including each position as an officer of the Board. 9 �Additional nominations may be made in writing, addressed to the Chair, signed by at least five members of the Board, prior to the date above provided for the report of the Trustee and Governance Committee, and any such additional nominations shall be reported to the Board by the Committee at the time of its report. Voting on nominations at annual meetings may be by ballot, each member present to vote on said nominations. In case the balloting results in a tie for one or more positions, the Board shall determine the procedure to resolve the tie. No nominee for member or officer of the Board shall be deemed elected who has not received the affirmative votes of at least a majority of the members present at the meeting. If there should be fewer than eight members in any class prior to the end of the term for such class, any vacancy may be filled pursuant to the procedure provided above for regular elections, except that the election may take place at any regular meeting. A member elected to fill any such vacancy shall hold office for the remainder of the term of the class in which such vacancy occurred. (4) Elections by the Alumni. The voice of alumni being of particular value to the Board, each year one of the college’s alumni shall be elected to membership for a term of three years, in such manner that there shall be three members of the Board elected by the alumni, consisting of three classes of one member each. Outgoing members so elected shall continue to serve until their successors’ term of office begins. Such elections shall be conducted in accordance with the By-laws of the Alumni Association of St. John’s College. The president of the Alumni Association Board shall consult with the Chair of the Trustee and Governance Committee of the Board of Visitors and Governors concerning the Association’s nominees and shall advise the Trustee and Governance Committee of its nominees in advance of the Board of Visitors and Governors’ mid-year meeting so that the organizations’ respective nominations can reasonably be coordinated. In the event that for any reason there should be fewer than one member so elected in any class prior to the end of the term of that class, the vacancy may be filled by the Alumni Association of St. John’s College. Newly elected alumni shall begin their terms immediately following the annual meeting of the Board. (5) Faculty Representation at Board Meetings. Three members of the Faculty shall be elected by the Faculty on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on the campus to which they belong, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (6) Student Representation at Board Meetings. Two students shall be elected by the Students on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on the campus to which they belong, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (7) Associate Dean for Graduate Programs Representation at Board Meetings. Each Associate Dean for Graduate Programs may attend all regular sessions of the Board on such Associate Dean’s campus, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (8) Graduate Institute Student Representation at Board Meetings. A student of the Graduate 10 �Institute shall be elected by the Students of the Graduate Institute on each campus to attend all regular sessions of the Board on such student’s campus, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (9) Staff Representation at Board Meetings. The Staff on each campus shall be invited to send two representatives to all regular sessions of the Board at that campus, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (10) Reelection: A member of the Board elected by the Board or the Alumni may be elected for not more than two consecutive terms, but may, after a second consecutive term, be reelected by the Board or the Alumni to membership at their respective annual meetings in the year following the expiration of the member’s second term. Notwithstanding the foregoing, in extraordinary circumstances, the Trustee and Governance Committee may recommend the reelection of Board members for an additional term of up to three years. (11) Meetings of the Board. (a) The Board shall hold at least three regular meetings annually, at least one of which shall be held on each campus. The last meeting of the academic year shall be called the annual meeting. The time and place of regular meetings shall be determined by the Chair, in consultation with the President, and notice of regular meetings shall be given not less than fifteen days prior to such meetings. (b) Special meetings of the Board may be called by the President, the Chair, the Executive Committee, or any nine members of the Board, not less than seven days after the dispatch of written, faxed, or e-mail notice of the time, place, and purposes of the meeting. Such notice may be dispensed with if waived in writing by all members of the Board either before or after the meeting. (c) Any business may be conducted at a regular meeting without specific notice of such business (except that which is required by law or as provided herein as to elections and amendments), but no business shall be conducted at any special meeting unless notice of such business has been given, or has been waived as above provided. (d) One third of the members of the Board shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. (e) From time to time, administrative matters of the College may require a vote of the full Board without the necessity of calling a special meeting. Such votes may be requested of the full board electronically and conducted electronically without specific notice of said votes (except that which is required by law or as provided herein as to elections and amendments). If, upon receipt of the request for such vote, at least three members of the Board respond that a special meeting of the Board is needed for discussion, the vote will be suspended and procedures for a special meeting will be implemented. A quorum of the Board must respond to such vote in order for the action to be valid. Any action approved by voting outside a meeting of the Board must be ratified in a Plenary Session at a subsequent meeting of the Board. 11 �(f) The Board in regular session is open to elected and ex officio members, to Visitors Emeriti, to Honorary Board Members as guests, to Associates and others invited by the President, and to official representatives of the Faculty, Students, Graduate Institute, and Staff. Attendance at Executive sessions shall be limited to voting members and Visitors Emeriti. Public sessions shall be open without restriction. The Chair of the Board, in consultation with the Presidents, shall determine whether any meeting or portion of a meeting shall be in regular, executive, or public session. (12) Officers of the Board. At each annual meeting the Board shall elect a Chair, Vice-Chair, and Secretary, to hold office until the next annual meeting or until their successors are elected. Vacancies in any such offices may be filled at any regular meeting, or any special meeting called for that purpose. Such officers shall perform the customary duties of such offices, and such other duties as the Board may from time to time direct. (13) Committees of the Board. (a) Executive Committee. The Chair, Vice-Chair, Secretary, Presidents, Deans, Chairs of the Finance, Advancement, Visiting, Trustee and Governance, Audit and Compliance Committees, and Chairs of any other committee of the Board at the discretion of the Chair of the Board (such discretion to be exercised annually), the immediate past Chair of the Board (for the remainder of the past Chair’s current Board term), and two other members chosen annually by the Board at the annual meeting shall comprise the Executive Committee of the Board. In intervals between meetings of the Board, the Executive Committee may act for the Board, except in those matters expressly delegated to some other committee, person, or persons. Eight members of the Executive Committee present at a meeting shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. The Executive Committee shall recommend to the Board the identity and tenure of the College-wide President. (b) Presidential Search Committee. There shall be a Presidential Search Committee to recommend the appointment of a President as provided in Article IV(2). (c) Trustee and Governance Committee. There shall be a Trustee and Governance Committee which shall be responsible for the nomination, orientation, and assessment of members of the Board as provided in Article II(3), and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall charge. (d) Visiting Committee. There shall be a Visiting Committee, which shall meet at least once annually with the Instruction Committee on one of the campuses. The Visiting Committee shall discuss the Statement of Educational Policy and Program of the Chair of the Instruction Committee and become acquainted with the aims of the College and how they are being realized, and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall charge. The Deans shall be members of the Committee, ex officio. 12 �(e) Finance Committee. There shall be a Finance Committee which shall be responsible for recommending to the Board the annual budgets, policies for the expenditures from endowments, major capital expenditures, and policies for the investment of College assets. It shall be responsible for the oversight of the College’s financial matters, physical plant and compensation policies for faculty and staff, and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall charge. The Presidents, Treasurers, and Chair of the Board shall sit on the Committee, ex officio. (f) Audit and Compliance Committee. There shall be an Audit and Compliance Committee, including a Chair, appointed by the Chair of the Board. The Committee shall be responsible for the review in detail of the annual report of the independent auditors and the discussion of audit findings with the auditors, unattended by employees of the College. The Committee shall recommend to the Board the appointment or reappointment of independent auditors to conduct the audit for the next fiscal year. The Committee shall further be responsible for the regular review of compliance by the College with all applicable local, state and federal laws, rules and regulations. The Committee shall report to the Board no less than annually on its review of the audit and of compliance matters, shall bring to the attention of the Board any matters related thereto requiring Board action, and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall determine. The Treasurers shall serve as non-voting Staff to the committee. (g) Polity Review Committee. There shall be a Polity Review Committee appointed by the Chair every fifth year. The Chair of the Board shall appoint one of the members to be Chair of the Committee. The Committee shall receive from the Faculty Committee an account of the Faculty’s vote on proposed amendments. The respective Chairs of the Board and Faculty Review Committees shall make such arrangements as they deem appropriate for joint consultation prior to and after the adoption of the report by the Faculty. (h) Advancement Committee. There shall be an Advancement Committee which shall be responsible for the oversight of the College’s fundraising, communications, and alumni relations functions, and shall have such other responsibilities as the Chair of the Board shall determine. The Vice Presidents with responsibility in the areas of Development and Alumni Relations shall be members of the Committee, ex officio. (i) Other Committees. The Chair may appoint such other standing or special committees of the Board as the Chair deems desirable or which the Board may request. (j) Former members of the Board and Visitors Emeriti may be appointed by and at the discretion of the Chair to serve on committees. (k) Except for the Presidential Search Committee and the Polity Review Committee, committee appointments shall be made annually. Members of the Committees serve until their successors have been appointed. 13 �(l) The Chair of the Board shall determine whether any meeting or portion of a meeting shall be in regular, executive, or public session, except that meetings of the Presidential Search, Trustee and Governance, and Executive Committee shall be held in executive session. Any member of the Board may, without invitation, attend any Board committee meeting in regular session with voice but without vote. Committee meetings in public session shall be open without restriction. A committee chair may enter into executive session during a committee meeting if the need arises. Attendance at committee meetings in executive session shall be limited to voting members of that committee and any other person invited by the chair of such Committee or authorized by the Chair of the Board in consultation with the Chair of such committee. (m)Whenever a Capital Campaign is in progress, its Chair shall be an ex-officio voting member of the Finance and Executive Committees. (14) Execution of Contracts, Transfer of Securities, Etc. All contracts of $500,000 or more, notes, deeds, leases, mortgages, releases, bonds for security or indemnity, negotiable instruments, stock certificates, transfers, and powers, and like papers and documents on behalf of the College or the Endowment Funds shall be executed by two persons, of whom one shall be the President, the Chair, or a Vice-Chair, and of whom the other shall be the Secretary of the Board or the Treasurer of the campus concerned. (15) Signing of checks, drafts, etc. All checks, drafts, acceptances, and similar orders for the payment of money on behalf of the College may be signed by the same persons authorized to execute contracts, etc., pursuant to Section (14) hereof, but may also be signed by such persons, and in such manner, as the Board may from time to time direct by appropriate resolution. (16) The College shall indemnify, to the full extent permitted by law, any current or former member of the Board or Officer of the College or any person who, while a member of the Board or an Officer of the College, may have served at the College’s request as a director, officer, partner or trustee of another entity, against any judgments, penalties, fines, settlements and reasonable expenses actually and necessarily incurred by him or her in connection with the defense of any action, suit or proceeding to which he or she is made a party by reason of being or having been such member of the Board or Officer of the College. Article III THE FACULTY The Visitors and Governors by these ordinances hereby delegate to the Faculty of St. John's College, the Presidents, the Deans, the other Tutors, the Tutors Emeriti, the Vice Presidents, the Treasurers, College-wide Officials and the Associates "powers and authorities" for the "instruction, discipline, and government" of the College. 14 �Article IV THE FACULTY: THE PRESIDENT (1) There shall be a President for the Annapolis campus and a President for the Santa Fe campus, each appointed as provided in Article IV (2). There is delegated to each President by the Visitors and Governors executive responsibility and authority for the instruction, discipline, and government of the President’s campus, and the President, in turn, may delegate such authority. In the interest of the orderly conduct of business and of maintaining and promoting the unity of the College, the Presidents shall regularly consult and communicate with each other and, as appropriate, with other members of the College, on matters of common concern. The delegation of campus executive responsibility and authority made by the Visitors and Governors in this paragraph is not intended to be in derogation of Article XVIII of this Polity. (2) The President shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of a Committee composed of five members of the Board of Visitors and Governors appointed by the Chair of the Board, at least one of whom is an alumnus, the Deans, and one Tutor having tenure from each campus elected by the Faculty on that campus. This Committee shall be known as the Presidential Search Committee. It shall consult with the continuing President in a regular and timely fashion. Prior to making its final recommendation, it shall, on both campuses, consult with all other appropriate persons and shall arrange for the final candidates to meet with the Faculty,the Instruction Committee, and, to the extent they have been formed, the Associates Councils and the Staff Councils of each campus. The compensation of the President shall be determined by the Chair of the Board in consultation with the Vice-Chair of the Board and the Chair of the Finance Committee. (3) The President shall concurrently be a Tutor, but the provisions of Article VI need not apply. (4) The President and persons to whom the President delegates authority shall consult with the Deans, other appropriate persons, and appropriate Faculty committees in matters of policy, initiation of programs, and setting of priorities affecting the general welfare of the College. (5) The President shall appoint, or delegate the power to appoint, other committees as may be necessary for the carrying out of the President’s duties for which no provision is made under Article IX. (6) If in the judgment of the Board of Visitors and Governors, the College is facing a financial exigency at either or both of its campuses which could call for a reduction in the number of Faculty positions, both Presidents shall immediately advise the Faculty of the nature and extent of the financial difficulty and consult with them concerning the best way to address the situation. The Faculty may then make a formal recommendation to the Presidents on ways to meet the problem, or, if the Faculty fails so to act, the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall propose a plan to the Presidents. The Presidents shall jointly then 15 �determine a plan which specifies a preferred course of action to be taken. All necessary steps must be taken in timely fashion as prescribed by the Board. Nothing herein provided shall limit the power of the Board to act otherwise in the event of need to reduce or eliminate Faculty positions. Article V THE FACULTY: THE CHAIR OF THE INSTRUCTION COMMITTEE AND THE DEANS (1) The Chair of the Instruction Committee. (a) There is delegated to the Chair of the Instruction Committee responsibility and authority for the organization of the program of instruction in the liberal arts that is followed by the Tutors and the Students. (b) The Deans shall serve alternately, for a term of one year, as Chair of the Instruction Committee. (c) Each year the Chair of the Instruction Committee shall, after consultation with the Instruction Committee on the Chair’s campus, and after discussion with the Instruction Committee of the College, submit a Statement of Educational Policy and Program to the Faculty as a whole for discussion. The Presidents shall present the Statement, together with an account of the Faculty discussion of it, and their responses to it, as a report to the Board of Visitors and Governors for its consideration. (d) Should the Chair of the Instruction Committee or the Chair of the Board of Visitors and Governors deem it appropriate, the Chair of the Instruction Committee shall report to the Board on instructional matters, and shall respond to such questions as the Board, through its Chair, may ask. (2) The Deans. (a) There is delegated to the Deans on their respective campuses responsibility and authority for the supervision of the program of instruction and for the general welfare of the students and for whatever government of the students be necessary for the greatest possible attainment of aims of the program. Each Dean shall be the Chair of the Instruction Committee on such Dean’s campus. In carrying out the Dean’s duties, each Dean shall consult regularly with the President and with the Instruction Committee and the other appropriate Faculty committees on that campus. (b) The Deans shall be appointed for terms of five years from among the Tutors by the Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President after consultation with a special committee of seven, four from the campus for which the Dean is being chosen and three from the other campus, selected from among themselves by the Tutors having tenure. 16 �(c) A Dean shall be appointed from among the tutors who have themselves been appointed in accord with Article VI(3). If non-tenured, the appointee shall acquire tenure upon becoming Dean, in which case the provisions of Article VI(3)(a) regarding reappointment schedules shall not apply. (d) To assist them in carrying out their duties, the Deans shall recommend one or more Tutors to be appointed by the President with the title of Assistant Dean. (e) During the absence of the President from either campus, the Dean on that campus shall if necessary exercise the President's prerogative of final decision. (f) During the absence of the Dean from either campus a Tutor with tenure named by the Dean shall act for the Dean. (g) The Dean on each campus shall appoint such committees as may be necessary for the carrying out of the Dean’s duties for which no other provision is made. Article VI THE FACULTY: THE TUTORS (1) The primary responsibilities of the Tutors are to teach and to make themselves as competent as possible in all parts of the St. John's Program. (2) The Tutors shall have authority to recommend to the Visitors and Governors candidates for degrees of their respective campuses. (3) Appointment and Reappointment of Tutors. Tutors shall be appointed by the Visitors and Governors upon recommendation of the President in accordance with the recommendation of the Dean and the Instruction Committee on that campus where the Tutors so appointed shall teach. (a) The schedule of regular appointment of Tutors on each campus shall be either (i)(A) or (i)(B) below, to be decided by the President in accordance with the recommendation of the Dean and the Instruction Committee on that campus where the Tutors so appointed shall teach: (i)(A) New Tutors shall be appointed for one year unless they are appointed at midyear, in which case the initial appointment shall be for a year and a half. First reappointments shall be for one year. Second and third reappointments shall be for two and three years respectively. (i)(B) New Tutors shall be appointed for two years unless they are appointed at midyear, in which case the initial appointment shall be for a year and a half. First and second reappointments shall be for two and three years respectively. 17 �(ii) A Tutor who has completed a three-year appointment must either be given a tenure appointment or not be reappointed as Tutor. A Tutor may, however, be given a tenure appointment as early as the conclusion of the first year of a three-year appointment. Procedures leading to a recommendation for an early tenure appointment shall be initiated by the Dean and Instruction Committee, but not without the consent of the appointee, and shall not prejudice subsequent consideration for a tenure appointment. Tenure appointments shall not continue beyond retirement. Tutors Emeriti shall retain their privileges and responsibilities in voting at Faculty meetings. (iii) Before making recommendations to the President on tenure appointments the Dean on each campus shall consult with the Instruction Committee on that campus, after seeking the advice of the Tutors on that campus. (iv) A Tutor, to be recommended for a tenure appointment, must have served full-time at the campus where the recommendation is to be made for the two years immediately preceding the year in which that recommendation is made, the provisions of (ii) above notwithstanding. In ordinary cases, these two years of service will be the second year of a two-year appointment and the first year of a three-year appointment. These requirements may be waived by the President on the recommendation of the Dean and Instruction Committee on that campus. (b) A non-tenure appointment as Tutor establishes the possibility, but not the presumption, of its renewal and the granting of a tenure appointment. Procedures for considering non-tenure appointments differ from those for considering tenure appointments. Satisfaction of appointment criteria admits of degree. With each successive reappointment, the criteria are applied more rigorously. For a tenure appointment the application is especially strict. (c) For the purpose of temporary transfer between campuses, special appointments of one or two years may be granted to a Tutor in addition to his or her regular appointments. The Tutor may ask that such an appointment be counted as a regular appointment for the purpose of (a) above. In the case of a permanent transfer a Tutor may ask that years of service at the other campus be counted toward tenure according to the provisions of (a) above. Nevertheless, the provisions of (3)(a)(iv) prevail. (d) Special one-year appointments and reappointments may be given to Tutors who intend to teach on a part-time basis only. Such a Tutor may subsequently apply for and receive a regular appointment. Special part-time appointments may then be counted on a fractional basis toward eligibility for tenure, subject to the provisions of (3)(a)(iv). In establishing eligibility for sabbatical leave, special part-time appointments shall be computed proportionately. (e) Visiting Tutors may be appointed for a term or a year. 18 �(4) Notification. (a) A Tutor under consideration for a non-tenure appointment to begin in a certain calendar year shall be notified by the President no later than December 15th of the preceding calendar year whether reappointment will be recommended to the Board of Visitors and Governors. A Tutor who is reappointed shall be notified by the President by March 1st of the calendar year in which the new appointment is to begin. (b) A Tutor under consideration for a tenure appointment to begin in a certain calendar year shall be notified by the President no later than May 31st of the preceding calendar year whether the appointment will be recommended to the Board of Visitors and Governors. A Tutor who is appointed shall be notified by the President by July 31st of that same preceding year. (5) A Tutor may apply to the Instruction Committee of the College not later than January 15th for a transfer of campus for the next academic year. Transfers shall require approval of both Deans after consultation with their Instruction Committees. (6) (a) A Tutor’s appointment may be terminated by the Board of Visitors and Governors for one of the following reasons only: (i) failure or inability to perform teaching duties in a satisfactory manner, (ii) moral turpitude, or (iii) violation of the College’s Sexual Misconduct Policy or Non-Discrimination and Anti-Harassment Policy, where a violation has been found and invocation of Article VI, 6(a) of the Polity is determined pursuant to the relevant Policy to be an appropriate sanction, after all provided appeals under the relevant Policy have either been exhausted or not taken. With respect to termination recommendations made pursuant to 6(a)(i) or (ii) above, the President shall make such a recommendation to the Board of Visitors and Governors only with the concurrence of the Dean and the Instruction Committee of the campus concerned. Before making such a recommendation, the President shall advise the Tutor affected, and the Tutor shall have the right to be heard by the Instruction Committee of the campus concerned or, at the Tutor’s option, by another committee to be designated by the President for this purpose. With respect to termination recommendations made pursuant to 6(a)(iii) above, the President shall make such a recommendation to the Board of Visitors and Governors after consultation with the Dean and the Instruction Committee of the campus concerned. When making such recommendation, the President shall note whether the Dean and the Instruction Committee of the campus concerned concur in the recommendation. Before making such a recommendation, the President shall advise the Tutor affected, and the Tutor shall have the right to be heard by the Instruction 19 �Committee of the campus concerned or, at the Tutor’s option, by another committee to be designated by the President for this purpose. (b) Either Dean, with the approval of the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned, may recommend to the President that in the interest of instruction a Tutor be temporarily relieved of duties in whole or in part at any time. When such action is taken, the Tutor's salary shall be continued for the remainder of the current academic year. (7) The sabbatical leave program is designed to provide Tutors with an opportunity for study, rest, and renewal of spirit, in anticipation of future teaching. It is the objective of the program to grant all applications for sabbatical leave meeting the conditions for eligibility set out in (a) of this section. It is understood that Tutors on such leave will not undertake full-time remunerative employment elsewhere and will return to the College. (a) Eligibility for sabbatical leave shall be upon the following conditions: (i) A Tutor who has received a tenure appointment may apply for a full year of sabbatical leave at full salary, to be taken upon completion of the equivalent of seven full years of service to the College since the original appointment, or the equivalent of seven full years of service since any previous sabbatical leave. (ii) Such a Tutor may apply for an earlier sabbatical leave of a full year at partial salary, or a partial year at full salary. The fractional salary or fractional year shall be determined by the number of years of teaching completed in relation to the prescribed total for either an initial or a subsequent sabbatical leave, as the case may be. In no case shall a Tutor be paid more than the Tutor’s regular salary. (iii) Upon completion of sabbatical leave, a Tutor is expected to return to the College for at least two more years. (b) If, in the judgment of the College-wide President, after consultation with the other campus President and the two Deans, financial or academic needs of the College should require that fewer sabbatical leaves be granted on either or both campuses in a given year than there are qualified applicants, the College-wide President may, with the approval of the Chair of the Board of Visitors and Governors, set a maximum number of sabbatical leaves for one or both campuses for that year. If the maximum number of sabbatical leaves on a campus is to be set based on the academic needs of the College, the approval of the Dean of that campus is also required. (c) If in a year there are more qualified applicants for sabbatical leave at any one campus than there are leaves to be granted at that campus, then those members shall have precedence who meet the following conditions in the order set forth: (i) Those who have served for the greater number of years since their first appointment as Tutor or since their last sabbatical leave, whichever is more recent; 20 �(ii) Those whose service has been continuous throughout those years; (iii) Those whose last sabbatical leave was postponed pursuant to 7(b); (iv) Those who have seniority of appointment. When there is a conflict of precedence, the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned shall be consulted. (d) A Tutor eligible for sabbatical leave shall make application to the President before November 1st for leave to begin the following July 1st, and shall be informed of the action upon the application not later than January 1st. (8) The President, with the concurrence of the Dean after consultation with the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned, may grant leaves of absence to Tutors for a period of one year or less. At that time it shall be determined whether the leave shall be counted as service to the College with respect to eligibility for sabbatical leave and, if so, how. The decision with respect to a request for leave of absence shall be made in the light of the requirements both of the applicant Tutor and of the whole College. (a) Leave of absence may be renewed upon request but not more than twice in succession except in extraordinary circumstances. (b) A request for a leave of absence shall be submitted to the President as early as possible in the academic year before the year in which the leave is to be taken, but not later than January 15th of that year. Requests for leaves of absence may be withdrawn at any time prior to April 1st of the year in which the request is submitted. Requests for leaves of absence for the second semester must be submitted no later than October 15th. (c) Tutors on sabbatical leave or leave of absence remain members of the Faculty with the right of full participation in Faculty meetings and all other College exercises. Article VII THE FACULTY: THE VICE PRESIDENTS AND OTHER OFFICIALS (1) A Vice President with responsibility in the areas of Development and Alumni Relations on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President made after consultation with the Dean on that campus. Upon the recommendation of the College-wide President, and approval of the Board of Visitors and Governors there may be a Campaign Director. (2) The Vice President of Enrollment shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the College-wide President, in consultation with the 21 �other President and the two Deans, and shall be responsible for the supervision of the Admissions and Financial Aid Directors. (3) There may be such other persons appointed with the title of Vice President as deemed appropriate by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the College-wide President made after consultation with the other President and the two Deans. (4) The Treasurers shall have charge, on their respective campuses, under the supervision of the President, of all funds and property, and shall have authority to carry out fiscal and property transactions, and to receive and disburse funds, subject to the provisions of this Polity and other directions and arrangements pursuant thereto. (5) The Treasurer on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President made after consultation with the Dean on that campus. (6) There shall be a College-wide Chief Financial Officer, appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors upon the recommendation of the College-wide President, in consultation with the other President and two Deans. (7) The compensation of the Vice Presidents and the College-wide Chief Financial Officer shall be set by the College-wide President, in consultation with the Chair of the Board. (8) The following are the College-wide Officials: (a) the Vice Presidents with responsibility in the areas of Development and Alumni Relations; (b) the College-wide Chief Financial Officer, and (c) such other officials as the Board shall approve upon the recommendation of the College-wide President, in consultation with the other President and the two Deans. (9) The Vice Presidents, the Treasurers and other College-wide Officials may be appointed Tutors under the provisions of Article VI(3)(d). Article VIII THE FACULTY: THE ASSOCIATES (1) Associate members of the Faculty on each campus shall be appointed by the President in consultation with the Dean of that campus. On each campus, the President shall have ultimate executive authority over the Associates. (2) Associates may be appointed Tutors under the provisions of Article VI(3)(d). (3) The Associates on either campus may establish for themselves an Associates Council for the purpose of considering College matters of concern to them and communicating with other members of the College. 22 �(4) The Associates Councils may establish such committees as they deem appropriate. (5) There shall be the following Associates, as deemed necessary by the President on each campus, with the powers and responsibilities provided. (a) The Registrars. The Registrars shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses. They shall prepare and supervise the registration of students and shall be responsible for the academic records and schedules of students. (b) The Librarians. The Librarians shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the operation of the library. Appointments of professional members of the Library Staff shall be made upon the recommendation of the Librarian to the Dean on each campus. (c) The Director of Student Activities and the Director of Athletics. The Director of Student Activities and the Director of Athletics, as the case may be, shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for devising and directing programs of recreational activities. (d) The Executive Director of Campus Health and Wellness. The Executive Director of Campus Health and Wellness shall be responsible to the Presidents on their respective campuses on matters relating to the physical and mental health and well-being of the Students. (e) The Directors of Admissions. The Directors of Admissions shall be responsible to the Vice President of Enrollment for the administrative functions on their respective campuses. Since it belongs to the Deans to supervise the composition of the student body with a view to the conduct of the Program of Instruction, admissions policies will be decided in concert with the Deans, and the Deans shall have final authority over who is admitted. (f) The Directors of Alumni Relations. The Directors of Alumni Relations shall be responsible to the Vice Presidents with responsibility in the areas of Development and Alumni Relations. Their primary duty is to enable the College and the Alumni Association to be of service to alumni. (g) The Directors of Financial Aid. The Directors of Financial Aid shall be responsible to the Vice President of Enrollment for the administration of financial aid programs. Since it belongs to the Deans to supervise the composition of the student body with a view to the conduct of the Program of Instruction, financial aid policies will be decided in concert with the Deans. (h) The Directors of Career Services. The Directors of Career Services shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for helping and counseling students with respect to graduate and professional schools and careers. 23 �(i) The Director of College Information Technology Services. The Director of College Information Technology Services shall be responsible to the Collegewide Chief Financial Officer for the development and management of information services college-wide. (j) The Directors of Laboratories. The Directors of Laboratories shall be responsible to the Dean, in consultation with the Laboratory archons, for training and directing the student laboratory assistants, designing experiments for the laboratory program, and purchasing and maintaining laboratory equipment. Article IX THE FACULTY: FACULTY COMMITTEES (1) College-wide Committees (a) The Instruction Committee (i) The Instruction Committee shares with its Chairs responsibility for the program of instruction of the College. It shall consist of twelve Tutors in addition to the Deans. The Presidents shall sit with the Committee ex officio. Six of the Tutors shall be elected from each campus of the College. The Instruction Committee shall meet annually. On each campus the members of the Instruction Committee and the Dean as Chair constitute the Instruction Committee of the College on that campus. The President sits ex officio with the Instruction Committee on each campus. (ii) Each of the members of the Instruction Committee shall serve for a term of three years, and the terms shall be arranged in such a way that each year the terms of two members at each campus shall expire. Terms begin and end the day following commencement exercises. Annually, and separately at each campus, the President with the Dean on his campus, after consulting with the Instruction Committee and seeking the advice of the other Tutors on that campus, shall at the last regular Faculty meeting on that campus nominate four Tutors of whom two shall be elected by the Tutors to membership on the Instruction Committee. The Faculty shall be informed of the names of the nominees prior to the meeting at which the election occurs. At the expiration of the three-year term a member of the Instruction Committee shall for one year be ineligible for reelection. (iii) If for any reason a member of the Instruction Committee is unable to serve for a part of his or her term, another Tutor shall be chosen to serve for that part of the term. For this purpose the President and the Dean, in consultation with the Instruction Committee on the campus where the vacancy occurs, shall nominate two Tutors of whom the Tutors shall elect one in a regular Faculty meeting. 24 �(iv) If the Instruction Committee resigns with the Deans on a matter of confidence and the resignations are accepted, the President, in consultation with the new Deans and after seeking the advice of the other Tutors, shall nominate nine Tutors for the six vacancies on each campus in such a manner that two out of each three nominees shall be elected by the Tutors for each of the three classes to fill the unexpired terms. (b) The Tutors' Compensation Committee (i) There shall be a Tutors' Compensation Committee of six Tutors, three to be elected by the Tutors on each campus, and the chair shall annually alternate between campuses. The Committee shall advise the Presidents concerning Tutors' compensation and related matters; it shall make annual reviews of the College's statement of Tutors' salaries and other compensation of Tutors and report to the Tutors and the Presidents recommendations consequent upon the review. (ii) Members of the Committee shall be elected annually on each campus for terms of three years in such a manner that the term of one member on each campus terminates each year. The Tutors' Compensation Committee on each campus shall provide the Tutors on that campus with two nominations for each vacancy on the Committee on that campus. Additional nominations may be made at the Faculty meeting when election shall be made. (2) Campus-specific Committees (a) The Campus Planning Committees. The Faculty on each campus shall elect five of its members as a Campus Planning Committee. Two members shall be elected to the Committee annually except in every third year, when one member shall be chosen. The President, the Dean, one of the Assistant Deans, and the Treasurer on each campus shall sit ex officio with the Committee on that campus. It shall be the duty of the respective committees to advise the President on the construction of new buildings, the renovation of old buildings, landscaping of grounds, and all matters relating to the maintenance and development of the campus. (b) The Library Committees. The President on each campus, in consultation with the Librarian and the Dean, shall appoint three Tutors on each campus to serve as a Library Committee. The President, the Dean, and the Librarian shall themselves be ex officio members of the Committee, and the Librarian shall serve as Chair. It shall be the duty of the Library Committees to assist the Librarians in making the Libraries serve the ends of the College and its program; it shall be their duty to advise the Librarians in regard to Library policy and acquisitions. (c) The Information Technology Committees. The Dean on each campus shall appoint three Tutors to serve as an Information Technology Committee, one of whom shall serve as Chair. Each Tutor shall serve a three-year term. The Dean, the Director of College Information Technology Services, and the Librarian shall be ex officio members. It shall be the duty of the Information Technology Committees to advise the 25 �Director of College Information Technology Services in regard to the needs of the College and its Program. (d) The Prize Committees. The President on each campus shall appoint Tutors on each campus to supervise the awarding of prizes on the respective campuses. The Committees shall have full authority to decide what prizes shall be awarded and to name the recipients of the prizes. (e) The Fellowship Committees. On each campus there shall be a Fellowship Committee appointed by the President. It shall be the duty of this Committee to inform students of fellowships for which they may be eligible, to assist them in applying for fellowships, and to act on behalf of the College in any matter relating to application for fellowships. (f) Other Committees. The Faculty on each campus shall have authority to elect, or to request the President to appoint, additional committees that may from time to time become necessary. Article X THE FACULTY: FACULTY PROCEDURE (1) Procedure for Instructional Proposals. (a) (i) Any proposal concerning matters of instruction that may affect the College as a whole shall originate with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on either campus. A decision as to whether a proposal is college-wide or campus-specific shall be made by the Deans and Instruction Committee of the College. They shall make this decision after notifying the Faculty on both campuses and inviting their comment. Written statements of college-wide instructional proposals shall be distributed to the Faculty at least two weeks before the Faculty meeting at which they are to be presented; the proposal shall be presented to the whole Faculty by the Chair of the Instruction Committee, either in person or through the other Dean. If, after full discussion of any proposal so presented, there be no objection on the part of any Tutor, the measure stands approved and becomes effective as of the date specified. If, after full discussion, a Tutor objects to the proposal and holds to the objection, the proposal shall be submitted to vote of the Tutors at special Faculty meetings called by the Presidents within a month. Any objections that have been made and held to and submitted in writing shall be transmitted immediately in writing to the whole faculty. Any objections that have been made and held to but not submitted in writing shall be reported immediately in writing to the whole Faculty. If, after discussion, any objection has been made and held to, the Presidents, in calling special Faculty meetings, shall report the statement of the Chair of the Instruction and the Dean on the other campus as to whether it be a matter of confidence; and in 26 �submitting the proposal to vote, the Chair of the Instruction Committee and the Dean on the other campus shall, at the special Faculty meetings, repeat their statement as to whether it be a matter of confidence. The vote may then be taken and tallied by the Presidents in such a fashion that the Tutors shall have recorded their decision acting as a whole. If the proposal be one that the Chair of the Instruction Committee and the other Dean have declared a matter of confidence and if it be defeated by majority vote, the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall immediately resign. If it be passed by majority vote, it shall become effective as of the date specified therefore. For the confidence procedure a quorum shall consist of three-fourths of all resident Tutors on each campus. (ii) Any instructional proposal that has been deemed campus-specific shall be subject to the procedure set forth above, except that, if an objection is made and held to on either campus, voting shall proceed only on the campus were the proposal is intended to be put into effect. Any objections that have been made and held to and submitted in writing on the other campus shall be transmitted immediately to the voting Faculty. Any objections that have been made and held to but not submitted in writing shall be reported immediately in writing to the voting Faculty. If the confidence procedure is invoked, it shall be only by the Dean on the voting campus, and it shall affect the Dean and the Instruction Committee only on that campus. (iii) The President may refuse to accept the resignation of the Deans or the Instruction Committee, any or all of them, whenever in the judgment of the President such resignation would be detrimental to the proper functioning of the College; provided, however, that if any six or more Tutors shall petition the Visitors and Governors, the latter shall review the President's decision within four weeks, during which time the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall continue in office. (iv) In the event that the proposal be defeated and the resignations be accepted, the President shall proceed to the choice of new Deans in accordance with the provisions of Article V (2)(b). (b) Upon either a petition of not less than one-tenth of the Tutors on either campus or a request from the President, the Dean and Instruction Committee on that campus shall consider any recommendation concerning instruction and shall report to the Faculty within one year concerning it. If the Dean and Instruction Committee make a proposal, the procedure of Article X(1) shall apply. (2) Faculty Meetings. (a) Regular monthly meetings of the Faculty shall be called upon due notice by the President; except that in the period comprising the months of December and January only one regular meeting need be called. The President or, in his absence, the Dean, shall preside. In the absence of the President and the Dean, the Faculty shall elect one of 27 �its members to preside. (b) Special meetings of the Faculty may be called upon due notice by the President alone or at the request of five Faculty members. (c) Due notice shall be construed to mean no less than three days notice, except in cases of emergency. (d) A quorum shall consist of a majority of the Faculty in residence except as otherwise provided. (e) Only Tutors may vote on instructional matters. All Faculty members may vote on all other matters not specifically restricted in the Polity. (3) The Secretary of the Faculty. At the last regular meeting of an academic year, the Faculty on each campus shall elect one of its members, then in at least his or her third year at the College, as Secretary. The Secretary shall assist in the preparation and circulation of the agenda for Faculty meetings, shall keep the minutes of such meetings, and shall collect and circulate reports of Faculty committees. Article XI THE SCHOLARS-IN-RESIDENCE AND THE ARTISTS-IN-RESIDENCE The Scholars-in-Residence and the Artists-in-Residence shall be appointed from time to time by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President after consultation with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the campus where the Scholars and Artists shall reside. Article XII THE STUDENTS (1) The primary responsibilities of the Students are to study and to make themselves as competent as possible in all parts of the St. John's Program. Their advice and service shall be sought by the Faculty in such matters and in such ways as may best serve the general welfare of the College. (2) The Students of St. John's College shall constitute the Student Polity of St. John's College in Annapolis and in Santa Fe. (3) The Student Polity in Annapolis or Santa Fe may establish for itself a government which is representative of all polity members. The Dean on each campus may delegate to the Student government a share of the responsibility for the general welfare of the Students and whatever government of the Students may be necessary for the greatest possible attainment of the aims of the program. The duties of the Student Government may include: 28 �(a) the management of funds available to the Student Polity; (b) the sanctioning of all student clubs, organizations, and activities, and their regulation, if necessary; (c) the representation of the Students of St. John's College to the community outside the College; (d) the establishment and maintenance of formal channels of communication between the Students and the Faculty; and (e) any other duties agreed upon by the Students and the Dean. Article XIII THE GRADUATE INSTITUTE (1) The Associate Deans for Graduate Programs. (a) There shall be an Associate Dean for Graduate Programs on each campus to whom shall be delegated responsibility and authority, under the Chair of the Instruction Committee, for the organization and supervision on the Associate Dean’s campus of the graduate program of instruction in the liberal arts and for matters concerning the general welfare of the students. Concerning matters that affect the Graduate Institute as a whole the Associate Dean shall, in consultation with the other Associate Dean, be responsible to the Chair of the Instruction Committee. Concerning matters limited to one campus, the Associate Dean on that campus shall be responsible to the Dean on that campus. (b) The Associate Deans shall be appointed for terms of four years from among the Tutors by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President, after consultation with the Deans and a special committee consisting of five members, three from the campus on which the new Associate Dean will serve, and two from the other campus, selected from among themselves by the Tutors having tenure. (c) Every three years, in alternation, one of the Associate Deans shall write a Statement of Educational Policy and Program for the Graduate Institute. The Associate Dean who writes the Statement, after consulting with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on his or her campus, and with the other Associate Dean, shall submit the Statement to the Instruction Committee for discussion at its joint meeting. Should an Associate Dean be asked to write a statement in the first year of his or her term, the Associate Dean may delay this statement for a year. In such a case, the other Associate Dean shall write his or her statement in the following year. (2) The Faculty Teaching in the Graduate Institute. (a) Each Associate Dean, after consultation with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on 29 �that campus, and in accordance with the recommendation of the Instruction Committee on the same campus, shall recommend to the President Tutors for appointment in the summer session of the Graduate Institute. (b) During the summer term the Tutors teaching in the Graduate Institute on each campus shall have the authority to recommend to the Board of Visitors and Governors candidates for degrees. (3) Committees for the Graduate Institute. (a) On each campus the Committee for the Graduate Institute shares with the Associate Dean on the same campus responsibility for carrying out the Graduate programs of instruction and for the general welfare of the students. (b) Each Committee shall consist of three Tutors who have experience in the Institute, in addition to the Associate Dean, who shall serve as Chair. (c) Members of each Committee shall be appointed by the Associate Dean with the concurrence of the Dean on the same campus after consultation with the Committee for the Graduate Institute on that campus. (4) Proposals concerning matters of instruction or policy shall originate with one of the Associate Deans, after consultation with the other Associate Dean and with the Committee for the Graduate Institute, and shall be submitted to the Dean on the originating campus for handling in accordance with Article X(l)(a)(i). Article XIV THE ALUMNI (1) Alumni shall be life-long members of the College, since St. John's College is a community not limited by geographical location or fixed periods of time. (2) The Alumni Association is a means by which Alumni participate in the life of the College. Through the election of alumni members of the Board of Visitors and Governors, Alumni share in the direction of that life. In these and other ways, Alumni shall be given the opportunity to serve the College. (3) The College shall cooperate with the Alumni Association to enable Alumni to assist in providing services such as recruiting and interviewing prospective students, placing graduates in appropriate employment, and advising students concerning careers and admission to graduate and professional schools. (4) The College, in cooperation with the Alumni Association, may provide seminars and other appropriate educational activities in Annapolis, in Santa Fe, and in other places. 30 �Article XV THE STAFF (1) Members of the Staff assist with the administration and maintenance of the College, performing duties necessary to its well-being. They are subject to appropriate Staff rules and regulations. (2) Members of the Staff on either campus may establish for themselves a Staff Council for the purpose of better communication and understanding of College policies as a benefit to the College as a whole. The Staff Council shall seek to establish and maintain formal channels of communication among the whole Staff and between the Staff and the appropriate members of the College. The Treasurer on each campus shall review Staff employment regulations with the Staff Council and discuss with them any changes proposed. The Staff Council, if formed, shall meet at least twice annually with the President on its campus and the Staff of that campus. (3) The Staff Council may establish such committees as it deems appropriate. Article XVI AMENDMENTS AND REVIEW (1) Amendments to this Polity may be proposed by a majority of the Board Polity Review Committee, or by a petition submitted by not fewer than ten percent of the members of the Board, or by the Faculty as provided for in section (2) and (3) below. Written notice of a proposed amendment must be provided to the Board and to the Faculty not less than 30 days prior to the date of the Board meeting at which the amendment is to be considered. The Faculty shall have the right to inform the Board in writing of its recommendation with respect to the proposed amendment by the time of that meeting. This Polity may be amended by a two-thirds vote of those members voting at any regular or special meeting of the Board, provided that the votes of no fewer than one-third of the members of the entire Board eligible to vote are in favor of such amendment. (2) Amendments may be proposed at any regular meeting of either the Faculty in Annapolis or the Faculty in Santa Fe upon petition of not less than ten percent of the members on either campus. No such proposal shall be acted upon earlier than the next regular meeting of the Faculty, whether in Annapolis or in Santa Fe. A two-thirds vote of the entire Faculty in residence, including at least a simple majority vote of the Faculty in residence on each of the campuses, shall be required for approval and the amendment shall not become effective unless approved by the Board in the manner set forth in Section (1) above. (3) Every five years this Polity shall be reviewed by a committee of six, three to be elected by the Faculty on each campus. That committee shall notify, to the extent they have been formed, the Associates Councils and the Staff Councils of each campus and give consideration to any views expressed by those Councils. The report of the Committee shall be submitted to 31 �one regular Faculty meeting and voted upon at the next regular Faculty meeting. A twothirds vote of the entire Faculty in residence, including at least a simple majority vote of the Faculty in residence on each of the campuses, shall be required for approval of any proposed amendments. Whatever action is thus recommended by the Faculty shall be submitted to the Board for final decision in the manner set forth in Section (1) above. Article XVII COMPLIANCE WITH LAW No provision of this Polity shall be construed to contravene any applicable federal or state law. If any provision is determined to contravene any such law, that provision shall be deemed not a part of this Polity, and this Polity's remaining provisions shall remain in full force and effect. Article XVIII COLLEGE-WIDE MANAGEMENT St. John’s College is one college, with two campuses. The officers of the College shall manage its resources in such a way as to strengthen the College, and thereby improve each campus, in a collegial manner and making due allowance for campus flexibility. (1) The Board of Visitors and Governors shall appoint one of the Presidents as a College-wide President, with the title “President, St. John’s College.” a. The term of the College-wide President shall be up to four years. b. All College-wide associates and College-wide Officials shall report to the Collegewide President, and the College-wide President shall have the authority to determine policies and supervise the execution of policies in those college-wide matters supervised by the College-wide associates and officers. c. The College-wide President shall have a cabinet consisting of the College-wide President as chair, the other President, the two Deans, the College-wide Financial Officer, and other members whom the College-wide President may appoint. It will review proposed budgets prior to their being presented to the Finance Committee of the Board. It will also meet prior to Board meetings to review performance in the fiscal year to date and emerging budgetary strengths and weaknesses. 32 �d. The College-wide President shall not have executive authority over instructional matters assigned to the Instruction Committee and its Chair under Articles V and IX(1) of the Polity. (2) The President of the other campus shall have the title “President, St. John’s College, Santa Fe” or “President, St. John’s College, Annapolis” as appropriate. The President shall assist the College-wide President in his or her formulation and execution of College-wide policies, and report to the Board concerning matters specific to his or her campus. (3) The following persons are Officers of the College: a. The Presidents b. The Deans c. The Treasurers, and d. The College-wide Officials. 33 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Charter and Polity of the College Description An account of the resource Revised and amended editions of the St. John's College Charter and Polity.<br /><br />The College's first Charter and Polity was published as the <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/3768">September 1950</a> issue of the <em><a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/collections/show/37">Bulletin of St. John's College in Annapolis</a></em>. Revised and amended versions were published as individual issues of the <em>Bulletin</em> in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/3746">1951</a>, <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7844">1960</a>, <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7845">1963</a>, and <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7846">1965</a>. <br /><br />The Charter and Polity was published as a separate document in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7850">1955</a> and again from <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7851">1970</a> forward. The most recent version of the Charter and Polity is also available on the College's <a href="https://www.sjc.edu/about/leadership/board-visitors-governors/charter-polity">website</a>. <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Items in the Charter and Polity of the College Collection" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?tags=Charter+and+Polity&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate">Items in the Charter and Polity of the College Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data PDF Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 33 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Charter and Polity of the College, 2019 Description An account of the resource Charter and Polity of the College, amended and restated November 2019. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Santa Fe, NM Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2019-11 Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Subject The topic of the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Legal instruments Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Charter_and_Polity_2019 Charter and Polity https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/bf4e5164d43e8cad5ccd0e9a54a8638a.mp4 a8307b6f6d08799c46b145f38eac8288 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College. During the Fall and Spring semesters, lectures are given on Friday nights. Items include audio and video recordings and typescripts.<br /><br />For more information, and a schedule of upcoming lectures, please visit the <strong><a href="http://www.sjc.edu/programs-and-events/annapolis/formal-lecture-series/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">St. John's College website</a></strong>.  <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Formal Lecture Series" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=5&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection.<br /><br />A growing number of lecture recordings are also available on the St. John's College (Annapolis) Lectures podcast. Visit <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/st-johns-college-annapolis-lectures/id1695157772">Apple Podcasts</a> or <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6GDsIRqC8SWZ28AY72BsYM?si=f2ecfa9e247a456f" title="Spotify">Spotify</a> to listen and subscribe. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context formallectureseriesannapolis Moving Image A series of visual representations imparting an impression of motion when shown in succession. Examples include animations, movies, television programs, videos, zoetropes, or visual output from a simulation. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data mp4 Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 00:53:22 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource "Poet, That’s Just Like You!": Language and the Figure of Echo (Steiner Lecture) Description An account of the resource Video recording of a lecture delivered on February 11, 2022, by Ange Mlinko as part of the Formal Lecture Series. Mlinko is the poetry editor of the Nation, an associate professor at the University of Florida, and a Guggenheim fellow. Mlinko describes her lecture: "Poetry is an enormous subject, but it can be distilled into a single figure. This figure is Echo, who manifests in three ways: as a prosodic device at the level of the line and stanza; as a poetic form; and as a nymph from Greek mythology, who may stand in for literature itself. We will look at the many ways in which Echo informs poetry and teaches us to read it.” This lecture is also part of the Steiner Lecture Series, which is made possible by a gift from the Steiner family in memory of Andrew Steiner, an alumnus of the college from 1963. The lecture series was established to bring notable speakers to campus from a variety of disciplines and endeavors, in recognition of Steiner’s intellectual versatility, and for the sake of continued learning. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mlinko, Ange Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2022-02-11 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource A signed permission form has been received stating: "I hereby grant St. John's College permission to: Make an audiovisual recording of my lecture, and retain copies for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make an audiovisual recording of my lecture available online. Make a typescript copy of my lecture available for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library." Type The nature or genre of the resource moving image Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource mp4 Subject The topic of the resource Poetry Echo (Greek mythology) Echo verse Frost, Robert, 1874-1963 Valéry, Paul, 1871-1945 Tyni︠a︡nov, I︠U︡. N. (I︠U︡riĭ Nikolaevich), 1894-1943 Hopkins, Gerard Manley, 1844-1889 Barnes, Barnabe, 1569?-1609 Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. or 18 A.D. Metamorphoses Poussin, Nicolas, 1594?-1665 Webster, John, 1580?-1625? Duchess of Malfi Bishop, Elizabeth, 1911-1979 Pushkin, Aleksandr Sergeevich, 1799-1837 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Macfarland, Joseph C. Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Mlinko_Ange_2022-02-11acccess Alumni Friday night lecture Steiner lecture https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/e57a354656f696d05d0f8572cedbe6bc.pdf fc79f0a3dd528bb89afab4119189d530 PDF Text Text ST JOHN'S College ANNA POLIS• SANTA FE 2020 COM MEN CEM ENT EXER CISE S Sunday I May 10 Two Thous and and Twenty Annapolis I Maryland �PROGRAM For the Two Hundred Twenty-Eighth Commencement in the Three Hundred Twenty-Fourth Year of the College Panayiotis Kanelos Welcome President of the College Announcement of Prizes and Awards President Kanelos Joseph Macfarland, A87 Dean of the College Address to the Graduating Class Margaret Kirby Tutor Conferring of Undergraduate Degrees Conferring of Graduate Degrees Welcome Dean Macfarland Emily H. Brooker Langston Associate Dean for the Graduate Program Alumni Association Board �BACHELOR OF ARTS Jawaid Beg Dublin, California The Problem of Piety in Sophocles' Antigone Tbel Abuseridze Batu mi, Georgia On Voyaging Kapil Adhikari Kathmandu, Nepal Violence, Ethics, and Freedom in Simone de Beauvoir's Ethics of Ambiguity Zainab Noor Ahmad Lucknow, India With Fem inine Love & Beauty: A Close Look at Prince Andrei Bolkonsky Angelika Nora Alberstadt Who Painted the Lion? An Analysis of the Wife of Bath in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales Towson, Maryland The Influence of War and Peace on Individuals in War and Peace Emmet Henry Allen Discovery and Concealment: An Examination of Meaning and Sedimentation in Husserl's Crisis of European Sciences Edgewater, Maryland And Repudiating Immolation: The Motion Towards Understanding in Faulkner's Go Down, Moses Thomas Clare Balding Shirley, New York Free Will and the Ind ividual in War and Peace: An Investigation of Man's Ability to Act in a Historical World Morgan Robert Edward Ballard-Wheeler Tucson, Arizona Love's Language in Tristan und Isolde: An Exploration of Musical Meaning Sanju Baral Mechi, Nepal East Williston, New York Fellow Feeling: A Study of Reform in George Eliot's Middlemarch Subodh Bhandari Kathmandu, Nepal Diving into Faith: An Investigation on How One Can Acquire Faith Lisle, Illinois Dead Cats: An Exploration of Morbid Curiosity through Nietzsche's The Birth of Tragedy Darcy Marie Bohlin Santa Fe, New Mexico On the Amorality of Forgiveness Westminster, Maryland Faith, Torn Apart: An Examination of Self-Transformatio n in Kierkegaard's Fear and Trembling Annie Lindsey Brong Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania The Cumulative Act ion of Creation: A Calcu lus under Darwin Martha Elaine Campbell Annapolis, Maryland The Perfect Words in the Perfect Order: The Power of the Poetic in S0ren Kierkegaard's Fear and Trembling and Whether it Succeeds in Saying the Unspeakable Charles John Carpenter Farmington, Connecticut The Natural Social Man: Finding Morality Free of Prejudice in Rousseau's Emile Kailin Ann Carter The Certainty of Uncertainty: (Planck's constant (h) and the knowledge of probability) Jared John Bassmann From Throat to Belly: The Body and the Self in Walt Whitman's "Song of Myself" Elaina Terrell Bowman Venice, Florida August Salladin Baganz Buda, Texas Robert D. Blankshain Jr. New York, New York Alexander Thompson Albert Athena Gabrielle Callistra Berreles-Luna Beaverton, Oregon Truth in the House of Lies: The Greatness of Shakespeare's King Henry V James Patrick Casey Fairfield, Connecticut A New Great Man: On Historiography and First Principles in War and Peace �I Cole Dillon Caudle Sulphur, Oklahoma Dynamic Language: An Essay Concerning How Our Conception of Language Shapes How We Engage with the World Yu-chieh Chang Taichung, Taiwan Between Love and Suffering: Confessional Language in Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment Parker James Chlovechok Cambridge, Ohio Hindsight is Twenty-Twenty: An Analysis of the Different Forms of Memory and their Applications to Life and the Creative Process Yoon Kyoung Choh Seoul, South Korea The Origin of Morality: Focusing on the Meaning of Death in Hamlet Raeann Alyah Clement Dabadie, Trinidad Paso Robles, California Hell is Empty and All the Devils Are Here: Justice, Faith, and Love in The Brothers Karamazov North Adelaide, Australia Time, Nature, & Empathy: A Portrait of Humanity in Goethe's Faust Luis Francisco Contreras Moran Puebla, Mexico Los Angeles, California Los Angeles, California Zarathustra's Solitude: A Path to Self-Overcoming Dorothy Rose Diaz-Sullivan Hyannis, Massachusetts Love and Anguish in Swann's Way by Marcel Proust Collin Gray Doherty Richmond, Virginia Gorgias: The Rhetoric of Shame I Annapolis, Maryland On the Isolation Present in the Modern Poetry of Charles Baudelaire Clarksville, Tennessee A Moral Bath: Pierre's Pursuit of Happiness in War and Peace Samuel Alexander Dreyer Washington, District of Columbia Marx, Engels, Ricardo, & Smith Social Labor: Marx's Critique of Vulgar Economy Charlotte, North Carolina "... And the battlefield is the heart of man.": An Inquiry into Love, Judgement, and Suffering in The Brothers Karamazov Sierra Irene Engdahl Estero, Florida Noah Kai Estes Moiser, Oregon On Storytelling: The Art of Experience, Perception, and Symbolism in Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Ennui in Baudelaire's Le Voyage Evanston, Illinois Divine Nature: Language and Knowledge in Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit Mackenzie Ann Richard Daffner Kathmandu, Nepal How to Build a Good European: Nietzsche's Pursuit of a Reformed Science How Ghosts and Art Catch Consciences Benjamin Clarke Crispell Nishan Dhungel Ryan Andrew Eberlein Till Death Do Us Part: On Love and Marriage in Rousseau's Emile Samuel Austin Cooper God's Love, Finitudes' Rage: Which Shall Conquer You? A Detailed Analysis of the Intricacies Involved in a Person's Journey to Faith in Kierkegaard's Fear and Trembling Kesi Emily Dremel Jessica Michelle Cole Julia Morgan Cooper Kathmandu, Nepal Mary Margaret Dray A Pursuit of Virtue Jack McGregor Condie Aashish Dhakal Williamstown, Massachusetts Sitting in an English Garden Waiting for the Sun-"I am the Walrus," The Beatles Zachary Stuart Flaugher* Lafayette, New Jersey �Anne Isabel Freeman Cary, North Carolina Let Us Pretend That Life Makes Sense: An Essay on Language and Reality in The Waves Sadie Bromberg Funk Minneapolis, Minnesota Inseparably Interconnected Infinitesimal Elements: An Exploration of Tolstoy's Science of History and its Mathematical Possibilities Tianqi Gao Beijing, People's Republic of China The Idea of "Conflicts" in Federalist Papers and its Misuse in American Politics Jodi-Ann Andrene Griffin Millersville, Maryland William Joseph Harrington Irving, Texas "By means of signs, including the tempo": An Investigation of Sign and Tempo in Nietzsche's Ecce Homo Mitchell Lewis Harris Carlsbad, California Death for Philosophers: A Guide to Dispelling the Fear of Death Through Lucretius' The Nature of Things Elizabeth Olivia Hartzell Houston, Texas Antigone: Oedipus's Complex Daughter Andrew Rowe Hastings Brunswick, Maine Across the Great Divide: Thinking About Mechanics, Pre and Post Quantum Rocky Hill, Connecticut The Moth, Lovers, and Dying Man: A Portrait of Beauty in Les Fleurs du Mal Chance Prehn Hogan Leesburg, Virginia Anti-Matter for the Master Plan: Euripides's Bacchae as a Self-Conscious Tragedy Isaac Allen Hoke Robinson, Illinois The Artist and the Child: An Exploration of Perspective in Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time Maddie Nell Fortier Jane Hagerstown, Maryland On Violence and Virtue: Hamlet and the Nature of Satisfaction in Revenge Stories Samuel Emerson Jones Alna, Maine Faith and Happiness: An Exploration of Fear and Trembling as the Path to Happiness Peter Cornelis Kaemingk Zeist, Netherlands Give Me Imagination or Give Me Death! On the Ideological Foundations of Democracy in the United States via Tocqueville and Pascal Anton Olegovich Kalmysh Yekaterinburg, Russian Federation The Limitations of Prospero's Project and Power Pain: The Price for Greatness Nancy Renee Hilton Kaila Nicole Johnson Charlottesville, Virginia What Giants? An Exploration of Laughter in Cervantes' Don Quixote Sila Karabiber* Sakarya, Turkey Why Two Geometries: The Story of Parallel Lines Su Karagoz Istanbul, Turkey Dionysus Unleashed: Piety In The Bacchae Beimnet Negash Kebede Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Augustine's Prayer: A Sinner's Guide to Salvation The Exploration of How a Sinful Creature Can Interact with God that is Outside of Sin Kidus Yonas Kebede Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Irregularity, the Pseudo-Perfect Garden: A Deliberation of Perfection and its Place Within God's Creative Process Alexander David Kocinsky Trumbull, Connecticut "Man errs as long as he will strive" Axel P. Krieger New York. New York Hubris the Tyrant? On the Making of a Tyrant in Oedipus Tyrannus Damon Theodore Kutzin Genolier, Switzerland Moving the World: The Role of God in Philosophical Beginnings Esther Jee-Hae Lee Timonium, Maryland Crim e and Punishment: Redemption-The Murderer and the Harlot �Jeong Ho Lee Seongnam, South Korea Put Thy Trust in God: Alyosha's Dynam ic Faith in The Brothers Karamazov Zachary Michael Leveroni Elk Grove, California Hegel's Critique of Pure Morality: The Use and Abuse of Conscience in Hegel's Elements of the Philosophy of Right Yixing Li Shenyang, People's Republic of China Motion through the Lens of Quantum Mechanics Yuqing Liao Beijing, People's Republic of China A Path Open to All: An Analysis on Critique of Pure Reason Timon Luo Brooklyn, New York The Way to Nirvana: Purpose of the Pilgrimage in The Journey to the West Louis Nathan Mainwaring Foster Birmingham, United Kingdom Cairo, Egypt Alone on the Island of Man's Knowledge: An Examination of the Social and Asocial in Hayy ibn Yaqzan Jameson Deweese Marshall Fairfax, Vi rginia Loving Others by Loving Ourselves: An Exploration of Happiness in Rousseau's Emile ZawMaw Yangon, Myanmar Wisdom of Self-Experience in Hermann Hesse's Siddhartha Cambridge, Ohio The Fruits That We Bear: An Exploration of Character and Action in Aristotle's On Poetics and What the Art of Fiction Tells Us About Our Perception of Reality Sterling, Virginia Change We Can Believe In: Knowledge, Necessity, and History in Philosophical Fragments Zihan Mei Dionysos's Presence in Th e Bacchae Finding Satisfaction in a Material World: An Analysis of Lucretius' On the Nature of Things Atanas Zdravkov Minev Plovdiv, Bulgaria Faith: Bringing a Thought- Project to Life, An Essay on S0ren Kierkegaard's Philosophical Fragments John Schuyler Monday Thousand Oaks, California Family and Leadership in Shakespeare's The Tempest Elisabeth Marie Morell Hangzhou, People's Re public of China Stockholm, Sweden To Whom Do I Owe This Alienation? An Inquiry into Words and Meaning in Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit Maplewood, New Jersey Faraday and Maxwell's Theory of the Whole Thomas Christopher Mountain Kassem Ayad Mansour Scott Stanaway Mccrae Hanover, Pennsylvania Reuben Irving Morris Capital Alive: What Could it Mean? Tyler Michael Mazur Sean Alexander Miller Baltimore, Maryland Christianity 101: An Examination of Kierkegaard's Established System in Philosophical Fragments and its Applicabi lity to the Gospel of John Elinatan Israel Nelson Silver Spring, Maryland The Tension Within the Leaf: How Conflicting Ends Manifest in the Growing Plant Raymond Elijah O'Donnell Severna Park, Maryland Epictetus' Principles: An Investigation via Kantian Experience Luke Timothy Olson Annapolis, Maryland How Should We Learn? How Class and Folly Influence Education in Aristophanes' Clouds Connor Patrick O'Malley* Annapolis, Maryland Edan Moses Otto Portland, Oregon A Quantum of Causality: Kant ian Metaphysics and Quantum Mechanics Joined Yunju Park Changwon, South Korea Creators of Society: Mark Twain's Th e Adventures of Huckleberry Fin n I �Rose Susan Pelham* Decatur, Georgia John Francesco Pell Vienna, Virginia West Chester, Pennsylvania Arlington, Virginia Brendan Myles Reicherter Development of Character Through Music in James Joyce's Ulysses Goyang, Republic of Korea Ludington, Michigan Redemption and Damnation of Hu manity: A Story Portrayed by the Lovers of Gounod's Faust Greenbrier, Tennessee Westport, Connecticut I Beijing, People's Republic of China Hegelian Dialectics in The Phenomenology of Spirit Gabriela Maria Sanchez Wellington, Florida Miraculous Artworks: On Hannah Arendt's The Human Condition Lillian Rose Scanlan Honolulu, Hawaii Orphaned Souls in Moby-Dick Saint Louis, Missouri The Leap of Faith: Resolving the Dialectic between the Esthetic and the Ethical in Kierkegaard's Either/Or Swann in Search of Love and Art: The Role of Art, Aesthetics, and Appreciation in Shenzhen, People's Republic of China How Kant Saved Me from the Void Thomas Jacob Tatum Louisvi lle, Kentucky On the Meno: Can Knowledge be Shared? Nicholas Donaldson Thorp Sanford, Florida Do I Believe in Red Roses? An Exp loration of Belief in Thomas Reid's An I nquiry into the Mind and a Response to the Melancholy of Rad ical Skepticism Quang Ngai, Vietnam Eloping in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Claire Antonia Tucker Davis, California Bend, Oregon Descartes' Geometrie: A Study of Form and Imagination Hung Khanh Tram Portland, Oregon The Will to Choose: Ethics and Esthetics in Kierkegaard's Either/Or Swann's Way What Sort of Th ing Are We? Understanding our Behavior Through the Teachings of Epictetus Zuowen Tang "Well maybe I've been wrong/ maybe my intentions are irrelevant/ but honestly, it's not just for me": An Analysis of Maturity Th rough Henry IV Part I Anna Joelle Carole Se ban Kennebunkport, Maine Abigail Elizabeth Stuart Catechism of the Two Co mmandments Qingyang San Glen Leroy Shivel Jakob Ethan Stief Erica Rochelle Root James Edward Rubidge Kathmandu, Nepal Emma Lilia Stewart Inevitability of Going Beyond the Socratic Lucy Cabell Ross Aishwarya Sharma Who Is Ant igone? Living a Life Opposed to Life Fear of Change: A Look at Time in Charles Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du Mal Han Kyul Rhee Dublin, Ireland & Islamabad, Pakistan The Generalisation of Economic Thought: An Essay on The General Theory by John Maynard Keynes Achilles' Wager: On Fate in the Iliad Zachary Augustine Radford Eireamhan Mitha Semple Annapo li s, Maryland The Filial Bonds of Sympathy: Observations of the Commun ion between Man and Nature �Cedar City, Utah Mary Elizabeth Turner Descartes' Approach Alberto Clemente Antonio Valenzuela III Naveed Ahsan • Manila, Philippines The Traveler's Mind: From Both Sides of Jonathan Swift's Fourth Wall Grace Maren Villmow Glen Ellyn, Illinois in Christine de Pizan's the Book of the City of Ladies Johnstown, Colorado Home is Where the Heart Leads: Using Resourcefulness and Self-Reliance to Go on Living Xiaotian Wang Annapolis, Maryland Meanings of Language: An Analysis of Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations Mark Everett Wittmer Centennial, Colorado Distant Music: Art, Language, and Mediation in James Joyce's "The Dead" Xin Ye Hangzhou, People's Republic of China The Man of Faith Julian Paul Zeidler Lansdowne, Pennsylvania Confronting the Mask: An Investigation of the Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future Aidan Thomas Zito Arlington , Virginia Purcellville, Virginia Hudson, Ohio New York, New York Patrick Burke Corry • Seattle, Washington Thomas Farrell Cox • Falls Church, Virginia Lee Cranberg • Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts Jacob Jabulani Luseini Davenport • Syracuse, New York Liam M. Dempsey Annapolis, Maryland Andrew David Dorchester • Madeleine Nicole Emholtz Carson James Fall Washington, District of Columbia Gulf Breeze, Florida Washington, District of Columbia Zachary Nathaniel Greene Indianapolis, Indiana Samuel Philip Sexe Hage Saint Paul, Minnesota Jaime Marquez • Thomas Matthew McGuire Glen Burnie, Maryland Jacksonville, Florida Gabrielle Cristine Bruestle • Gregory LaMontagne • The Ecstasy of Heroism: On the Line Between Delusion and Insanity Logan Jefferey Zimmerman Shane Thomas Ayers • Nicholas John Bartulovic Judged, Sentenced, And Condemned: An Exploration of the Truth Behind Misogyny Katharine Wall MASTER OF ARTS IN LIBERAL ARTS Joyce Olin • Margaret Vrooman Post • Jordan Poyner Annapolis, Maryland Arlington, Virginia Georgetown, Delaware Annapolis, Maryland Palm City, Florida Winona Lake, Indiana To Win Sorrow Beyond What Is Given: Arrogance and Retribution in Homer's Adam Reed Odyssey Jordana Rozenman Washington, District of Columbia Kelly Ann Warner • Indianapolis, Indiana * Upon completion of requirements Brandon Matthew Wasicsko t Degree conferred January 15, 2020 Olney, Maryland Plantation, Florida �To the Graduate Institute student who has written a distinguished tutorial essay in the 2019-2020 academic year. Offered in Memory of Laurence Berns PRIZES AND AWARDS The Soul with Good Sense Guides Correctly To the member of the Senior Class who has written the best senior essay. Samuel Philip Sexe Hage Offered in memory of Susan Irene Roberts, of the Class of 1966 The Man of Faith Xin Ye To a member of the Senior Class, for excellence in speaking. Offered in memory of Senator Millard E. Tydings of Maryland Jared John Bassmann Honorable Mention The Cumulative Action of Creation- A Calculus Under Darwin Annie Lindsey Brong To the student who submits the best English version of a Greek text. Offered in memory of John S. Kieffer, President Emeritus Abigail Elizabeth Stuart Ivan Nicholas Zembrusky To the member of the Junior Class who has written the best annual essay. Offered by Mrs. Leslie Clark Stevens in memory of her daughter-in-law, Kathryn Mylroie Stevens Not Awarded To the member of the Sophomore Class who has written the best annual essay. Offered under the will of the late Judge Walter I. Dawkins, of the Class of 1880 The Role of Time of Augustine's Confession Brandon Chon Garcia Naked and Afraid Olivia Star Pittard To the member of the Freshman Class who has written the best annual essay. Limits of the Noble: the Human and the Div ine in Prince H ector Allayah Drake Mason-Koehler To the Graduate Institute student who has written a distinguished preceptorial essay in the year 2019. Offered by the Alumni Association To the student who submits the best English version of a French poem. Offered by the Board of Visitors and Governors Not Awarded Honorable Mention Morgan Robert Edward Ballard-Wheeler To the student who submits a fine original English poem. Offered by Dr. George Austin in memory of his brother, Henry "Anagram" Nortaute Elena-Ruta Grintalis Honorable Mention "Your Eyes were Violets" Samuel J. Berrettini To the student who submits a tine original musical composition. Offered in memory of Mary Joy Belknap, President of the Caritas Society 1987-1991 "Lament for Viola" Love and Suffering in Joyce's Ulysses Christine Marie Mooradian Morgan Robert Edward Ballard-Wheeler To the student who submits a fine essay on a piece of music. Offered in memory of Mary Joy Belknap, President of the Caritas Society 1987-1991 Morgan Robert Edward Ballard-Wheeler �To the student who submits the most elegant solution of a synthetic problem. Offered by the Class of 1986 in memory of Bryce Jacobsen, of the Class of 1942, Tutor and Director of Athletics Emeritus Lkhagvabadrakh Sereeter To the student who submits the most elegant solution of an analytical problem. Offered in memory of James R. McClintock, of the Class of 1965 Not Awarded To the student who carries out a fine laboratory project. Offered in memory of Curtis Wilson by the Class of 1963 Morgan Robert Edward Ballard-Wheeler To the members of the Senior class, through participation, leadership, and sportsmanship, have contributed most to the SJC athletic program, a special blazer. Jared John Bassmann Raeann Alyah Clement Mitchell Lewis Harris Elizabeth Olivia Hartzell To the member of the Senior Class who has contributed outstanding service to the Greater Annapolis Community. Offered by the Caritas Society of St. John's College Kesi Emily Dremel To the member of the Senior Class who has demonstrated the greatest care for and service to youth who reside in the City of Annapolis. Offered by the friends and family of Marvin B. Cooper, of the Class of 1969 Reuben Irving Morris To the member of the Senior Class who submits the best work of visual art to the Community Art Exhibition, the Charles Vernon Moran Prize. Portrait of the Artist Missing Croquet (and needing to Shave), oil on canvas Nicholas Donaldson Thorp Honorable Men tion Angel Wings, conte crayon on wood Julia Morgan Cooper To the Senior who has demonstrated excellence in the arts, literature, or sciences, the Walter S. Baird prize. From the Bottom of the Well, painting Annie Lindsey Brong � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Commencement Programs and Addresses Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Description An account of the resource Addresses given at commencement and programs of events related to, and including, the annual commencement ceremonies at St. John's College. Includes both the undergraduate and Graduate Institute commencements. <br /><br />The College Archives holds programs and/or addresses for the following years:<br /> <ul> <li>1796</li> <li>1835-1836</li> <li>1842</li> <li>1852</li> <li>1856-1857</li> <li>1870</li> <li>1878</li> <li>1880</li> <li>1890</li> <li>1893</li> <li>1895</li> <li>1897</li> <li>1907</li> <li>1910-1918</li> <li>1920-1924</li> <li>1928-1929</li> <li>1932</li> <li>1936-1937</li> <li>1939-1945</li> <li>1947-present  </li> </ul> Click on <strong><a title="Commencement Programs and Addresses" href="http://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=18&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the Commencement Programs and Addresses Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context commencementprograms Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data paper Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 10 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Commencement Program, 2020 Description An account of the resource Program for the two hundred twenty-eighth commencement in the three hundred twenty-fourth year of the college. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2020-05-10 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College owns the rights to this publication. Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource Commencement ceremonies Programs (Publications) Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context CommencementExcercises2020 Commencement https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/15cdf9814ff20ceb6893d2ace98db68c.pdf fcb7bec47656752e3c3f764b7736b18d PDF Text Text • SJC St.John's College 2019 COMMENCEMENT EXERCISES Sunday I May 12 Two Thousand and Nineteen Annapolis I Maryland �PROGRAM For the Two Hundred Twenty-Seventh Commencement in the Three Hundred Twenty-Third Year of the College Carrollton Brass Quintet Prelude Academic Procession Carrollton Brass Quintet The National Anthem Francis Scott Key, Alumnus, Class of 1796 Panayiotis Kanelos Welcome President of the College Announcement of Prizes and Awards President Kanelos Joseph Macfarland, A87 Dean of the College Robert Abbott, A04 Address to the Graduating Class Tutor Conferring of Undergraduate Degrees Conferring of Graduate Degrees President Kanelos Dean Macfarland President Kanelos Emily H. Brooker Langston Associate Dean for the Graduate Program Academic Recession Carrollton Brass Quintet �Cameron Milford Byerly BACHELOR OF ARTS Cordelia Grace Marie Achen Otis Orchards, Washington Outer Spaces Inner Intuitions: How Proofs Shape Our Relation to Mathematics in Euclid and Lobachevsky Layton Aho Rindge, New Hampshire Invisible Evil: Language, Deception and Authorial Intent in Paradise Lost Awss Al-Janabi Babel, Republic of Iraq Crownsville, Maryland Marlette, Michigan Alexandria, Virginia Millions of Facts of Distributed Light Vision in the Iliad's Deathless Prosopopoeia Dorothea Sihler Bowerfind Alexandria, Virginia A Contemplation of Creation in Genesis: The Dangers of Harmony to Human Life Zachary Bowman Arnold, Maryland Memory, Emotion, Intimacy: How Memory Acts Through Emotion in Proust's Swann's Way Dylan Francis Briceno-Hawkins Silver Spring, Maryland Columbia, South Carolina Words, Words, Words to Tell My Story: On the Power of Narrative in Shakespeare's Hamlet Matteo Scapini Burrell Social Problems in Language: A Wittgensteinian Perspective Meaning: Universal, Contextual, Ethical Zachary Alexander Cohen Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Erin Britany Compton Kelsey Eileen Cumiskey Bellevue, Washington Chesapeake City, Maryland The Legacy of the Barricade: Finding Light in the Darkness in Victor Hugo's Les Miserables Upper Marlboro, Maryland Waterbury, Vermont The Gadfly and the Cicadas: Countryside Madness in Plato's Phaedrus Rhys Edward Davis Arlington, Virginia Communism as Naturalism and Naturalism as Humanism: Karl Marx on Human Nature Alex Gregory Dicken Baltimore, Maryland Rethinking Alienation: A Life Beyond Hegel's Absolute Spirit Madeline Alyse Edwards Spartanburg, South Carolina The Middle Brother: Struggle and Redemption in Ivan Karamazov Aisha Evita El-Khatib Love, Mythos, and Pat Metheny Jacob Samuel Burger Guiyang, People's Republic of China John Davis On Suffering in John of the Cross's Dark Night of the Soul Neal Bhattacharya Weiouqing Chen Order and Human Nature in Vitruvius· Ten Books on Architecture Living in the Kingdom: An Exploration into the Self in Genesis and the Gospel of Luke Henry William Bartholomew Boundless the Deep: Why Evil is Possible, and Permitted, in Perfect Beings: John Milton's Paradise Lost Machiavelli's Man: On the Difference Between Men in The Prince Fade-In: The Cinematography of Marcel Proust in Swann's Way Samuel Grenfell Aston Hillsborough, North Carolina Gaithersburg, Maryland The Poetic Relativity of Falling in Love Graham Stuart Ferguson Annapolis, Maryland Deceit in Othello and Iago's True Self Sagar Gaire Madhyabindu, Nepal Value, Labour and Alienation: On the Impact of the Dual Character of Commodities and Labour on the Capitalist Mode of Production �Rachel Marie Goad Seth Elijah Kates Woodbridge, Virginia Desire's Lawful Bounds: Sexual Permission in Song of Solomon Christian Douglas Gordon* Sophia Kiang Franktown, Virginia Benjamin Nathaniel Haas Dahye Kim Karlena Anna Haase Suwon-si, Republic of Korea On The Characteristics of Humankind: A Linguistic Approach to Genesis 1-3 La Jolla, California The Two Sides of Natasha Rostov Carson Joanna King Patrick David Hamann Samuel Michael Harder Prabesh Koirala Alexander Brock Kwilinski Vividness and ''I": An Investigation of the Notion of Self in David Hume's Treatise of Human Nature Rachael Elizabeth Brooker Langston Creating Another Nature: The Inner Motions of the Artist At Work Seung Eun Lee Two is Strong Where One is Feeble: An Exploration of Love, Commitment and Community in Gershwin's Porgy and Bess. Luque, Paraguay The Other Woman: The Mastery of Self-Deception in Tolstoy's Anna Karenina Meredith Jane Lehan Waldorf, Maryland Smith Island, Maryland An Eve-olution: An Investigation of Eve's Character Progression in Paradise Lost Blessed are the Meek: An Exploration of Self in War and Peace and Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit Tianxiang Li Zhengzhou, People's Republic of China Necessity, Contingency, and Freedom: An Analysis of Leibniz's World Through the Lens of Computer Science Burke, Virginia The Illness Attending Ambition: On Cruelty and Weakness in Shakespeare's Macbeth Yuan Liu Yongin-si, Republic of Korea Hangzhou, People's Republic of China The Unhappy Consciousness' Path Towards Happiness: Why is the Confessions Not a Journey of Self-hatred? An Ordinary Miracle: The Still Life of Language in Virginia Woolf's To The Lighthouse Desiree Lydia Jones Annapolis, Maryland "The Church!": Recognition and Recollection in Marcel Proust's Swann's Way Annapolis, Maryland Sarah Lynn Irving Downers Grove, Illinois Fear and Trembling as a Dialectical Lyric East Greenwich, Rhode Island Anna Margaret Hubbell Pokhara, Nepal Hiding Madness and Expressing Grief Norwood, Massachusetts Elizabeth Grace Holt Bedminster, New Jersey We Are in The Soup Together: Albert Camus' House of Mirrors Bend, Oregon The Birth of Tragicomedy: How Shakespeare Merges Opposites in A Midsummer Night's Dream Jaeyon Jo Atlanta, Georgia Nostalgia: The Sickness for the Return in Labyrinthine Time, Forward and Back are No Different Philadelphia, Pennsylvania The Man of Stone: How to Live According to Tolstoy Zoe Hinman Marquette, Michigan The Nature of Revelation: The Expression of Art in Virginia Woolf's To The Lighthouse Grant William Lorello Queens, New York Inside Out An Attempt to Find the Location of Phedre's Feelings Gambrills, Maryland Probabilistic Causality: On the Completeness and Elegance of Quantum Mechanics I �Katherine Mary Mahaney Sacramento, California Decoding the Language of Laughter: An Analysis of Comedy through Cervantes' Don Quixote Christopher Lee McGowen Annapolis, Maryland Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China What Does It Mean for Us to be Human?: As Illustrated by the Descriptions of Oran, Tarrou, and Rieux Russell Thomas Mendez Milwaukee, Wisconsin Middlemarch: The Study of a Mediocre Life: It's Everything You Thought It Would Be and More Thaddia Angelica Mantione Clifton, Virginia Taking on the Dimension of Immortality: In Pursuit of a Lasting Beauty in Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du Mal Falon Muire Sycamore, Illinois "Voi che sapete che cosa e amor, vedete s'io /'ho nel car": An Exploration of Love in Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro Patrick Sean Mullins Arlington, Virginia The Myth of Self: An Essay on the Reflexions au Sentences et Maxims Morales of Francois, Due de La Rochefoucauld Alexander Vago Muradian Washington, District of Columbia Don Quixote's Journey for Dulcinea in Master Pedro's Puppet Show Hyun Jai Oh Seoul, Republic of Korea Washington, District of Columbia Teaching and Philosophy in Plato's Theaetetus Ethan Pellegrin Understanding Sin and Satan in Paradise Lost The Old Man and The Sea: An Argument Against the Hierarchy of Humanity and Animals Explained in On the Soul Tressie Sydney Rhoades Hardy, Arkansas Cyrus Albert Schiller Potomac, Maryland The Role of Art in Nietzsche's Moral Philosophy Aisha Khanam Shahbaz Rehoboth, Namibia The Possibility of Human Progress in Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace Aidan William Shaw Haddonfield, New Jersey Shades of Morality in Hamlet Christian Andrew Sheppard* Morehead City, North Carolina Ivan Romanovich Syritsyn Omsk, Russian Federation On Matters Pertaining to the Maintenance and Dissolution of the State: Or, Is It Possible to Create a Perpetual Republic? Yaxuan Tang Shenzhen, People's Republic of China When the Light Streams In: An Exploration of Raskolnikov's Character in Crime and Punishment Camille Rebecca Testa Arlington, Virginia Marxian Free Will and the Abstraction of the Objective World Criticize the Critic: How Moliere Satirizes Self-Superiority in The Misanthrope Val R. Pehrson Mar Lin, Pennsylvania Hide Your Demons: An Exploration of the Quality of Silence in Kierkegaard's Fear and Trembling Myopia and Justice in Aeschylus' Oresteia Yiyang Mei Dane Stephen Petchulis Ayushma Thapa Lalitpur, Nepal Transcendence of Andrey Bolkonsky Himanshu Thapa Damauli, Nepal What is a Karamazov Soul? Exploration of the Karamazovian Nature through Suffering and Redemption in Fyodor Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov Milford, Delaware Prasanna Jung Thapa A Search for Certainty in Newton's Principia Kathmandu, Nepal �Kathryn Irene Trojanowski Farmington. Michigan Guilt & Redemption & Crime & Punishment Thomas Anthony Troop Lancaster. Pennsylvania Sacrifice and Love in Othello and Much Ado About Nothing Sophia Alicia Underwood Nyack, New York Everyone Has Gone Mad: An Investigation into Madness in The Tragedy of Hamlet Willem Owen van Engen Reston. Virginia This English Monster: An Investigation of Richard of Gloucester in Shakespeare's Richard Ill Stacy Villibord Washington. District of Columbia Maximillian von Keudell Kamuela. Hawaii The Significance of the Other: An Analysis and Commentary on Hegel's Lord and Bondsman Dialectic Colin Kilpatrick Walker Birmingham. Alabama Substantial Being: Finding Ourselves through Materialism Santa Cruz, California Thinking about How Our Thoughts (and Will) Connect to Motion Pasadena. Maryland " ... I Put Away Childish Things": An Investigation into the Meaning and Merit of Maturity in Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Shatoujiao, People's Republic of China Is Protagoras' Measure Doctrine Really Self-Refuting? Abraham Liu Zhao Washington, District of Columbia Images of Ourselves Yuejia Zhu Number, Perception, and Continuity * Upon completion of requirements Greenbelt. Maryland Joseph Richard Coelho Annapolis, Maryland Alejandro Ehrenberg Mexico City, Mexico Aakarsh Gottumukkala Joseph Robert Hiles Sherry Josephine Hinton Teresa Anne Krone Christina M. Lambert Christine Marie Mooradian Samuel John Peregrin Ty Weiser-Podlech Yingzi Zhang Katherine Marion Badders Anna E. Kaminski The Portrayal of Eve in Paradise Lost Cara Jane Wiley MASTER OF ARTS IN LIBERAL ARTS Sammamish. Washington Atlanta, Georgia Glen Burnie, Maryland Washington, District of Columbia Chicago, Illinois Charlton, Massachusetts Washington Crossing, Pennsylvania Edmond, Oklahoma James Allan Phillips Annapolis, Maryland Tahseen Rasheed Annapolis. Maryland Nolan W. Reisen* Dubuque, Iowa Philip Janney Richmond Annapolis, Maryland Ryan Shinkel* Ann Arbor, Michigan Robera Tasissa* Geoffrey Furste Young Shenzhen, People's Republic of China * Upon completion of requirements Silver Spring, Maryland Annapolis, Maryland �PRIZES AND AWARDS To a member of the Senior Class, for excellence in speaking. Offered in memory of Senator Millard E. Tydings of Maryland Matteo Scapini Burrell To the member of the Senior Class who has written the best senior essay. Offered in memory of Susan Irene Roberts. of the Class of 1966 To the student who submits the best English version of a Greek text. Offered in memory of John S. Kieffer, President Emeritus Desire's Lawful Bounds: Sexual Permission in Song of Solomon Text: Plato, Rachel Marie Goad To the member of the Junior Class who has written the best annual essay. Offered by Mrs. Leslie Clark Stevens in memory of her daughter-in-law, Kathryn Mylroie Stevens Samuel Michael Harder To the student who submits the best English version of a French text. Offered by the Board of Visitors and Governors Text: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Les Confessions (excerpt) Damon Theodore Kutzin Mapping the Island of Truth: An Investigation into the Possibility of Metaphysics Damon Theodore Kutzin To the member of the Sophomore Class who has written the best annual essay. Offered under the will of the late Judge Walter I. Dawkins, of the Class of 1880 To the student who submits a fine original English poem. Offered by Dr. George Austin in memory of his brother, Henry "Moon-Ties" Samuel Michael Harder Poetry and Fame in the Divine Comedy Samuel J. Berrettini Repentance: The Song David Cannot Sing for Saul To the student who submits a fine original musical composition. Offered in memory of Mary Joy Belknap, President of the Caritas Society 1987-1991 Untitled Natalie Grace Walker To the member of the Freshman Class who has written the best annual essay. How to Hunt the Crocodile: An Investigation into the Significance of Descriptive Information in Herodotus' History Patrick David Hamann To the student who submits a fine essay on a piece of music. Offered in memory of Mary Joy Belknap, President of the Caritas Society 1987-1991 A Line by Line Reading of Flood of Babylon Jessie Ann Tagliani Natalie Grace Walker Honorable Mention Honorable Mention Tragedy and the Body: Fate in the Physical Form Mi Tradi: A Contemplation of Donna Elvira's Conflict in Don Giovanni Clio Simmons Jabine To the Graduate Institute student who has written a distinguished preceptorial essay in the year 2018. Offered by the Alumni Association On Reason and Faith in Montaigne's Apology for Raymond Sebond Leland Caswell Ellis Jr. To the Graduate Institute student who has written a distinguished tutorial essay in the 2018-2019 academic year. Offered in Memory of Laurence Berns Prudence and Virtue Patrick Burke Corry Morgan Robert Edward Ballard-Wheeler To the student who submits the most elegant solution of a synthetic problem. Offered by the Class of 1986 in memory of Bryce Jacobsen, of the Class of 1942, Tutor and Director of Athletics Not Awarded To the student who submits the most elegant solution of an analytical problem. Offered in memory of James R. McClintock, of the Class of 1965 Not Awarded To the student who carries out a fine laboratory project. Offered in memory of Curtis Wilson by the Class of 1963 Not Awarded �To the members of the Senior class, through participation, leadership, and sportsmanship, have contributed most to the SJC athletic program, a special blazer. John Davis Zoe Hinman Thaddia Angelica Mantione To the member of the Senior Class who has contributed outstanding service to the Greater Annapolis Community. Offered by the Caritas Society of St. John's College Zoe Hinman To the member of the Senior Class who has demonstrated the greatest care for and service to youth who reside in the City of Annapolis. Offered by the friends and family of Marvin B. Cooper, of the Class of 1969 Rachael Elizabeth Brooker Langston To the member of the Senior Class who submits the best work of visual art to the Community Art Exhibition, the Charles Vernon Moran Prize. The Graduate, oil on canvas painting Yuan Liu Honorable Mention Three embroidered works Cordelia Grace Marie Achen 11 T hree colored pencil and watercolor works Ai sha Evita El-Khatib To the Senior who has demonstrated excellence in the arts, literature, or sciences, the Walter S. Baird prize. Poem, short film Yaxuan Tang � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Commencement Programs and Addresses Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Description An account of the resource Addresses given at commencement and programs of events related to, and including, the annual commencement ceremonies at St. John's College. Includes both the undergraduate and Graduate Institute commencements. <br /><br />The College Archives holds programs and/or addresses for the following years:<br /> <ul> <li>1796</li> <li>1835-1836</li> <li>1842</li> <li>1852</li> <li>1856-1857</li> <li>1870</li> <li>1878</li> <li>1880</li> <li>1890</li> <li>1893</li> <li>1895</li> <li>1897</li> <li>1907</li> <li>1910-1918</li> <li>1920-1924</li> <li>1928-1929</li> <li>1932</li> <li>1936-1937</li> <li>1939-1945</li> <li>1947-present  </li> </ul> Click on <strong><a title="Commencement Programs and Addresses" href="http://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=18&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the Commencement Programs and Addresses Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context commencementprograms Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data paper Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 8 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Commencement Program, 2019 Description An account of the resource Program for the two hundred twenty-seventh commencement in the three hundred twenty-third year of the college. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2019-05-12 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College owns the rights to this publication. Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource Commencement ceremonies Programs (Publications) Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context CommencementExcercises2019 Commencement https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/bdeff912feca1bc3d17ac8d8ab677d56.pdf 83bf46fde507d962f63a4c6b483cc192 PDF Text Text A DISCOURSE ON Published at the request of the Society of the Alumni, and the Faculty of St. John's College. -OFFICE OF THEMARYLAND GAZETTE, J . GREEN, PRINT. 1827. ANNAPOLIS. �A DISCOURSE ON EDUCATION, Delivered in St . Anne's Church Annapolis, after the Commencement of St. John's College FEBRUARY 22d, 1827. BY FRANCIS S. KEY, ESQ. ALUMNUS OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE. Published at the request of the Society of the Alumni, and the Faculty of St. John'1 College. -OFFICE OF THE MARYLAND GAZETTE, J. GREEN, PRINT, 1827. ANNAPOLIS. �As St. John's College dedicates a new auditorium as a memorial to Francis Scott Key, patriot, attorney, and educator, it seems right to reprint his famous address of 1827. Key's concern for education is our concern for education: real security for a democracy originates in its liberally educated citizens. Men who can think rationally and imaginatively, who can write and speak clearly and effectively, and who can choose with wisdom are the best guarantee for a nation's future. They must supply the broad perception of executive leadership, the continuing critical appraisal of developing institutions, the personal initiative for bold enterprise, and the constant responsiveness to social obligations. Education once equipped free men of this type to establish the principles upon which our society and government are founded. The Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States document their genius. St. John's College since 1937 has been embarked upon a new curriculum which is the modern equivalent of the education which the Founding Fathers of this Republic received. Through direct contact with the great minds of Western civilization and through rigorous exercises in language, mathematics, music and laboratory sciences, St. John's College is seeking to develop free and rational men with understanding of the basic unity of knowledge, appreciation of our common cultural heritage, and consciousness of obligations, social and moral. To educate a man is an immensely difficult and frustrating task. There is no guarantee that a college will succeed. It has no other choice but to try. Key recognized the College's tremendous responsibility when he said that it must "make man master of himself through life". To achieve this end he proposed that a student be "made familiar with the sages and heroes of antiquity, to catch the inspiration of their genius and their virtue, and the great and the good of every age and of every land are to be made his associates, his instructors, his examples". This is what St. John's College seeks to do. D. WEIGLE President, St. John's College RICHARD �ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE. -- Annapolis, Feb. 22, 1827. At a meeting of the Alumni, the Faculty, and Visitors and Governors of St. John's College, held this day at St. Anne's Church, in this City, the following proceedings took place. JOHN C. HERBERT, Esq. was appointed Chairman. GEORGE SHAW, Secretary. On motion, the following gentlemen, viz. A. C. Magruder, F. S. Key, and James Murray, Esquires, wereappomted by the Chairman a committee, to prepare a Constitution for the organization of a Society of the Alumni of St. John's College. The meeting then adjourned, to convene at 7 o'clock this evening, at the City Hall. FEBRUARY 22, 1827.-7 o'clock, P. M. The meeting convened, according to adjournment. Mr. Magruder, from the committee, reported the following Constitution, which was unanimously adopted: Constitution of the Alumni of St. John's College. 1st. This Society shall be composed of the Faculty, the Visitors and Governors, and the Alumni of St. John's College. 2d. The Officers of the Society shall be a President, two Vice-Presidents, and a Secretary, to be appointed by the Society at each annual meeting. 3d. There shall be a meeting of the Society annually, to take place in the City of Annapolis, on the second Monday in January, at which time one of the Alumni shall deliver an Oration. The Society shall appoint the person who is to deliver the same; and in case the person so appointed should be unable to attend the next meeting, the President is required to select another of the Alumni for the purpose. 4th. A committee to consist of nine of the Alumni, shall be appointed at each annual meeting, and whose especial duty it shall be to promote the interests of St. John's College. 5th. The Committee may make provision for the admission of Honorary Members. .) The Meeting then proceeded to the choice of the Officers, agreeably to the second article of the Constitution, �4 when the following gentlemen were unanimously elected: JOHN C. HERBERT, of Prince-George's county, President ROBERT H. GOLDSBOROUGH, Talbot of county, first Vice President. RICHARD HARWOOD, of Thos. of Annapolis, second Vice President. GEORGE SHAW, of Annapolis, Secretary. The Society being organized by the appointment of its Officers, proceeded agreeably to the third article of the constitution, to the appointment of one of the Alumm, to deliver an Oration on the second Monday of January next, when John C. Herbert, Esq. was unanimously appointed to perform this duty. The following gentlemen were then appointed :i, Committee, agreeably to the 4th article of the Constitution. DR. DENNIS CLAUDE, A. C. MAGRUDER, JAMES BOYLE, ALEXANDER RANDALL, THOMAS s. ALEXANDER, JAMES MURRAY, JOHN N. w ATKINS, THOMAS H. CARROLL, DR. JOHN RIDOUT The following .Resolution was adopted by the Society. Resolved unanimously, That the thanks of this Association be presented to Francis S. Key, Esq. for the very able and eloquent Oration, delivered by him this day, to the Alumni of St. John's College, and that he be requested to furnish the Principal of St. John's College, with a copy thereof, for publication. GEORGE SHAW, Secretary. A DISCOURSE, &c. THE Gentlemen who preside over the institution, whose interesting exercises we have witnessed, have wished to avail themselves of this occasion to lay its claims before the public, and to call upon their fellow-citizens to join them in the great object which they are labouring to promote. In their behalf, and to fulfil this wish, I appear before you-teeling myself honoured by such a request, ar.d bound to endeavour to obey it. For, however excusable I might have thought myself in declining the delivery ot the usual address on such occasions, and leaving the claims of learning to other advocates more indebted for its advantages, and more able to display them, yet a call from this institution to appear in its behalf, and to plead its cause, was not.to be resisted. If gratitude for the richest of all earthly blessings, in the culture and discipline of my earliest and happiest years; if an ardent desire to see this venerable seat of learning restored to her former splendour, and dispensing these blessings to the rising generation of Maryland, the future ornaments and pillars of the state; if any degree of this gratitude, and this desire, could impart the ability to perform what they forbid ·me to decline, then should I appear before you with no other feelings than those of confidence and exultation--then should I be such an advocate as such a cause deserves-then could I even trust .to the inspiration of the moment, and of the scene now before me. If I shall be found to have undertaken what I may not be enabled to execute, the impulse that has prompted my obedience will be my excuse. It is my purpose to make a plain, and (if I can) a strong appeal to the understandings of my hearers; to set befcre them an object of great interest and high duty; and to enforce its obligations by every motive that should influence them as men and citizens. We have the happiness of living under a free government, where, whatsoever the community wills, is to be done. That it may choose what it shall will, it m ust be informed; and the subjects that arise are therefore, on all fit occasions, to be proposed to the people that they may consider and determine them. We live also in an age of great improvement. A spirit of enquiry and enterprize is awakened-Hence subjects new to the public mind, or new views of subjects, will continua1ly occur, as long as enterprize excites, or experience teaches. �6 7 I have before me an audience composed of citizens of Maryland forming, in point of numbers, and perhaps also of influence, but a small proportion of the community to which they'belong. I appear with no pretensions of my own to claim any consideration for what I may propose to them. But I appear in behalf of those who do deserve that any proposition, they may wish to have submitted to their fellow-citizens, should be respectfully considered; and above all the proposition itself deserves such consideration. If my hearers were less considerable in point of numbers and influence than they are, yet, if they shall favourably receive what I may propose, and shall make it (as they will do if they so receive it,) their care to excite a common interest in behalf of a common object, the public mind will be informed, and the public will, will be pronounced in its favour. I have therefore to invite your attention to a subject, which, if you will consider it, will speak for itself. It is, as you may suppose from the occasion, the subject of Education. I mean to shew that the public mind should have higher views than the public voice has yet expressed upon this subject; that it is the duty of the state to do more, in this respect, for the happiness of its people, and its own honour and interest, than it has done. I mean to speak freely, as becomes him who speaks to freemen. A government administered for the benefit of all, should provide all practicable means of happiness for all. It must also provide useful citizens competent to the discharge of the various services the public interests may require. Education confers happiness, and usefulness, and therefore demands attention. No maxim is more readily admitted than, that a wise and free government should provide for theeducation of its citizens; but the maxim seems not to be admitted to its just extent. A state affords to the poor or labouring class of its population the means of obtaining a common education, such an one as prepares them for the ordinary duties of their situation, and of which alone they oan generally avail themselves, who can give but a small portion of their time, and none of their means, to such pur- can be done, even for those for whose benefit what is done is intended, as I shall hereafter shew. And what is done for the other numerous and important classes of the community? And why are they to be neglected? In all political 1ocieties there will be men of different cond1t1ons and circumstances. They cannot be all limited by the same necessities, nor destined to the same employments. Nor is it desirable, nor, from the nature of things, possible that it should be so. If they could be reduced to the same level, they could not be kept to it. Idleness and vice would sink below it, honourable effort would rise above 1t. There are, and ever will be, the poor and the rich, the men of labour and the men of leisure, and the state which neglects either, neglects a duty, and neglects it at its peril, for which ever 1t neglects will be not only useless but mischievous. They have equal claims to the means of happiness. They are capable of making equal returns of service to the public. It is admitted that the neglect of one of these classes is unjust and impolitic. Why is it not so as to the other? If it is improper to leave. the man of labour uneducated, deprived of the means of improvement he can receive and requires, is it not at least equally so, to leave the man of leisure whose situation does not oblige him to labour, and who therefore will not labour, to rust in sloth, or to riot in dissipation? If there be any difference, it is more impolitic to neglect the latter, for he has more m his power either for good or for evil, will be more apt, from his greater temptations, to be depraved himself and the corrupter of others. This neglect would be peculiarly unwise in a government like ours. Luxury is the vice most fatal to republics; and idleness, and want of education in the rich, promote it in its most disgusting forms. Nor let it be thought that we have no cause to guard against this evil. It is perhaps the most imminent of our perils.* While, therefore, I readily subscribe to the principle, which all admit, that it is essential, in a free government, that the whole population should be sufficiently instructed to understand their rights, and be qualified for their duties, and that for this purpose suits. *Whoever observes that we have resident among us four or five foreign ministers from the most luxurious courts of Europe, with costly establishments and large incomes--that we send our citizens to all these courts as resident ministers-Whoever notes the change of manners, thus introduced, will see that we have departed far from the republican simplicity of better days, and that it is time fur our people, to consider whether either of these modes of importing foreignvices and And it is too generally thought that this is enough--that the state has discharged its duty-and that what remains to be done, to fit men for higher degrees of happiness and usefulness, and to qualify them for a wider sphere of duty, may be left to itself. But it is not enough. More, far more luxuries be necessary. �8 9 such an education as their situation will enable them to receive, should be provided for all, yet! will not fear to maintain (what is not so generally admitted,) that it is just as essential to a wise and proper administration of such a government that there should be found among its citizens, men of more exalted attainments, who can give their whole youth, and their whole lives, to the highest pursuits of every da. partment of useful science. I might prove this by a general enquiry into the nature of the services which the various circumstances of a state require from its citizens, and the nature of the talents, and how they are acquired, that fit men for such duties. And I might adduce instances from the history of the world, of what has been accomplished by the labours of those who have been thus prepared for eminent usefulness. But l need not waste your time in proving what I may assume. The connection of science, with all the sources of a people's greatness and happiness, requires no other proof than the evidence of the senses. What gives to agriculture her plains of smiling plenty) To commerce, her wide domain upon the mighty waters? To the arts, the very materials of their labour, as well as the skill to mould them? And what gives the power to defend, and the wisdom to govern the country they enrich? And has science accomplished all her conquests for man? Has she no further rewards for her votaries? Is she not now, in our own days, analyzing the earth for agricultture, and revealing the very elements of fertility? Has she not just given to the arts that safe and cheering light,* which descends into its deepest caverns, and makes its hidden treasures the prize, no longer of the fearful daring, but of the commanding wisdom of man? And is not her richest boon to commerce, the mightiest power with which she rules her dominions, the gift but of yesterday? She has, and will have, as long as man is doomed to labour, rewards for his labour, blessings to fit him for the enjoyment and diffusion of happiness here, and to prepare for the brighter glory of a higher state to which she teaches him to aspire. I may perhaps be told that it is not equally the duty of the state to provide these means of higher education, because it is not equally necessary; that the wealthier classes of the community have it in their power, without publie assistance, to provide such means. And can it be thought that this is popular doctrine? That the people are desirous that all, but the rich, shall be ex- cluded from the higher attainments of learning, and from all the power and advantage that such attainments bestow? If the rich can provide these means, and it is left only to them, the benefits will be confined to them. The state must interpose if provision is made for others. Surely the people at large will have intelligence enough to perceive that such interposition is manifestly in their favour. But in truth it has seldom, perhaps never, been found, that the wealth and patronage of individuals, without public aid and encouragement, was sufficient for such a purpose. And if the state is concerned, (as it evidently is) in the object, why should it not be made its care to secure it? I do not mean that such persons should have their children educatccl at the public expense, as should be the case with those whose necessities require it, but that they should be enabled to find within the state, an establishment founded by its bounty, and governed by its care, where their youth can he received and trained for the discharge of the duties required by their circumstances. The views I am endeavouring to present are intended to shew that this great subject of public education has not bee11 sufficiently attended to. There is wanting in Maryland, an institution worthy of her patronage, and adequate to the wants of her people, where the higher branches of literature and science should be cultivated. She has established her primary schools, and in this she has done wisely. She has thus provided, (though not sufficiently as I shall hereafter shew,) for one class, and an important class of her population. But she must not aspire to greater merit than that of having done part of a great duty. Till something is done for her other classes, and for a higher grade of edncation, her duty is unfulfilled. Till provision is made for a succession of competent teach ers in the primary schools, the very foundation of her system is imperfect. If the maxim I have referred to, be allowed to the ex!ent I have stated it, if a government is bound to extend a just and equal care to all its citizens, and see that means uf education, suited to the different circumstances of its people, are made accessible to all, I have only to ask how Maryland has discharged this obligation, when we know that her people have not these advantages; that hundreds of her youth are either excluded from the degree of improvement required by their condition in life, or obtain it by being sent to other states? I might sufficiently prove her obligation to enlarge and complete her system of education, by the attempts she has *Sir H. Davy's invention for lighting Mines. 2 �10 already made to provide something beyond the primary schools. She affords support, in most of the counties, to academies for teaching the rudiments of some of the learn-• ed languages, and some of the sciences. In this also she has clone wisely. And not a reason can be given for the wisdom of this, that does not shew the obligation to do more, and that without doing more, much that has been done will be fruitless. A boy of ten or twelve years of age, at one of the primary schools, or elsewhere, has acquired a plain English education. His parents are affluent, and have the means of enabling him to devnte his youth to education, and are desirous he should do so. When he has passed through his English School, he must either go home, and spend his youth in idleness, or be removed to some higher institution, where he can improve what he has acquired, and engage in other studies. The county academy furnishes generally the means of accomplishing this. But in three or four years he has passed through this also; and though the ability and inclination of the parent may still continue, the state has afforded no means of doing more. He is educated. I ask if it is admitted to be wise to afford the means of a higher education, and for continuing, under the exercise of discipline, a boy of twelve, who then leaves his first school? Does not wisdom equally demand that he should have the opportunity of learning more than he can have acquired at an ordinary academy? And is it not far· more important that a youth of fifteen should be placed under the wholesome restraint of college discipline, and not turned loose upon the world, free from the inspection and contronl of authority, to pass the most perilous period of his life? Parents cannot guard his morals, direct his judgment, restrain his pass10ns, and guide his- pursuits with the same advantages as a well conducted college. Or, if they could, they have other occupations inconsistent with such asuperintendance. We all know the character of youth; we see it now, as painted by the Roman Poet, who in that instance was no satyrist. "lmherbis juvenis, tandem custode remoto, Guadet equis, canibusque, et aprici gramine campi Cereusin vitium flecti, monitoribus asper, " Utillum tardus provisor, prodigus aeris, Snbl1m1s, cup1dusque, et amata relinqeure pernix." To permit so interesting a being, at such an eventful period of his existence, with all the attractions of a deceitful world around him, to throw off the yoke of obedience, and run the reckless course to which his own passions or the vices of others may allure him, is the deepest cruelty. 11 Restraint, judicious, gentle and persevering-employment, •controling the restless energies of an awakening mind and an excited imagination, are essential to his safety. Nor is it only as a refuge from the dangers of youth that such an institution is to be regarded. It is to give strength and preparation for the whole life. It is then that habits, principles and tastes, that fix the colour of succeeding years, are to be formed. Then are the victories to be -achieved over the temper and disposition, over the temptations from within, and from without, that make the man the master of himself through lite. Patience in investigation, accuracy of research, perseverance in labour, resolution to conquer difficulty, zeal in the cause of learning and virtue, are then to be acquired. Then is science to display her charms, and literature her delights, and a refined and exalted taste to lure him, by higher gratifications, from the vain pleasures of the world. Then is he to be made familiar with the sages and heroes of antiquity, to catch the inspiration of their genius and their virtues, and the great and the good of every age and of every land are to be made his associates, his instructors, his examples. Need I say more to shew that institutions, capable of dispensing such means of happiness and safety to so large and interesting a portion of the community, deserve the patronage of a state? But it is not only the safety and happiness of the indviduals, thus benefited, that is to be considered. The welfare of nations, and the improvement of mankind, are promoted by such establishments. It requires no argument to shew this-the man enlightened by learning, gifted with the high powers which education confers, strengthened by the habits which order and early discipline establish, enriched by collected stores from the wisdom and experience of ages, holds not these sacred trusts only for himself. His greatest enjoyment is to wield them for the glory and prosperity of that country which conferred such privileges upon him. Will not a grateful sense of these benefits heighten the ardour of his patriotism, and will he not serve a country that cherished and adorned his youth with more devotion, as well as with far more ability? It may be that love of country springs from some undefinable and hidden instinct of our nature, wisely given to the heart of man, to fit him for the filial duties which he owes to the land of his birth. But, this impulse, however pure and high its origin, must submit to the common destiny of all human affections. It may glow with increasing ardour, elevate itself above all our desires, and �12 13 reign the ruling passion of the soul. And it may grow cold, languish and expire. A country, like a parent, should meet this instinctive feehng of her children with a corresponding affection; should call it forth to early and continual exercise, by early and continual blessings, by setting before them illustrious examples, and all the high rewards of virtue, and preparing them for all the enjoyments and duties of life. Such a country will not want patrwts. But the land that does nothing to cherish or reward the natural affection of her sons, that associates with their early recollections no sense of benefits conferred, sets before them no ennobling incentives to honourable effort, and fits them neither to !eel the love, nor to discharge the duties, of patriots, must look for them in vain. She may spread before them the fairest scenes of nature, but they are regarded with a sigh. And the name and the thought of their country awakens no emotions but those of shame and reproach. It is reasonable, it is just, that it should be so. That a nation should be loved in proportion as 1t ments the love of its people. And it is so. The history of the world tells us from what altars the highest and purest flames of of patriotism have ascended. The slave of the despot, who leaves. an ill-fated country, and wherever he may wander, finds a fairer heritage and a better home, knows nothing of the "maladie du pays." It 1s the free and hardy Swiss, who hears in distant lands the notes that charmed his ear upon his native mountains, and sickens, pines and dies, with love of coun- tions and individuals are alike under obligations to uphold the general cause of humanity to contribute to the common stock of human happiness. The beneficent Creator who has placed us in this scene of probation, has made this both our duty and our interest. Our country has already been made the instrument of signal blessings to many portions of the earth.. In the science of government particularly, much of the improvement made, and now making in the condition of the world, is to be attributed to the free and enlightened discussion of its principles among us, and to the influence of our example. America has held forth the light of liberty to the world. To exalt still higher the lustre of her fame, to give perpetuity to our own institutions, and to dispense more widely the same blessings to others, let her now hold forth the torch of science. lf it be true, as the oldest and greatest critic* has pronounced, and a great modern historian§ has acknowledged, that free governments are best adapted to the successful cultivation of literature and the arts, then is it more our duty and our interest to encourage such pursuits. W c have then before us every motive and encouragement that can excite the heart of man. Love to ourselves, to our children, to our country, to our fellow creatures, to God, the giver of all our mercies, who has cast our lot ma land of light and liberty, and who reqmres us to shew our sense of the blessings we receive, by the blessrngs we confer-these are the feelings which we are to cherish or to stifle; these are the obligations which we are to fulfil or to slight at our peril. However great that object must seem that connects itself with the improvement and welfare of a country and of the world, yet are there belonging to it still higher considerations. Weprofess to be a christian people We have received a revelation, to which every thing within us and around us bears testimony of the high destiny of man, to which he is to be exalted when the ever changing scenes of this probationary state shall have passed away, and fo1· which he is to be fitted, by the due cultivation and employment of the faculties conferred upon him here. Whatever improves these faculties, enlarges the understanding, and exalts the affections, tends to prepare man to receive this faith and qualifies him to adorn it-makes him a shining light in a world of darkness, enables him to endure the conflicts of a life of trial, to "rejoice in the hope set before him," and try. . And is it nothing to a country thus to exalt itself rn the estimation and affection of her sons? Is it unworthy of her care to form institutions for her youth, that shall knit their hearts by the strongest ties to the land of their birth and education? That shall animate them to the highest zeal, and fit them for her greatest exigencies? To what can a nation look for her strength, security and glory, but to a succession of patriots thus trained for her service? Wisdom to discern, firmness to pursue, eloquence and argument to support the measures necessary for her welfare, will all be theirs. Mental improvement, the attainments of learning, in some way or other acquired, are generally essential to the discharge of such duties, and the state that fosters not institutions to afford them, has no right to expect them. Nor is it only to his own country that the man, thus fitted for his duties, dispenses blessings. They extend over the world, and descend to future generations. Let not this be thought too wide a sphere of duty. Na- §Hume. �14 fits him to communicate the blessedness of that hope to others This faith in the triumphs it is visibly achieving before our eyes, over the moral and intellectual darkness of the world, disdains not the aid of human learning. It suffers the calm lights of philosophy and science to mrngle with its purer and brighter rays, and shrne upon the path of its conquests. If then the institutions of literature have any tendency to promote such results, upon what principle can any people consent to remain destitute of their advantages? Who, among those who hear me, can be called upon m vam to aid in the effort that, I trust, is now to be made for the attainment of such an object? . And here I see before me those who are honou red with the confidence of the people of Maryland, who, I know, will not consider it presumptuous in me,. or in the houourable gentlemen in whose name I speak, 1f I address myself particularly to them, upon a subject so interesting to those whom they represent. that MaUpon this .subject I know 1t has been thought ryland has long since expressed her opnuon. That she has not thought it a matter of public concern to provide these mea,ns of education for her youth, and has therefore withdrawn the support she once afforded to the only institution competent to afford them-thus leaving to private enterprize an object, to the success of which she was either indifferent, or supposed would, without her care, be sufficiently attended to. I undertake, however, to deny that there has been any fair expression of the sense of the people of Maryland upon the subject. At the unfortunate period to which I refer when the brightest ornament of the state was cast away fro;n her protection, it was not the voice of the people, but the strife of party, by which 1t fell. It is notcensori-ous s to say of the opposing politicians who then divided an d distracted the state, that in their struggles for pre-emmence, each class considered its own ascendancy as the greatest concern of the state. In their eager search for pretexts to catch the popular ear, the College was thought of. As the of it, and a great people at large seldom saw it or heard proportion of them, from their situation, felt no immediate interest in its continuance, 1t was thought the saving of the funds could be called economy, and that the many, who were to be flattered, would be pleased with the destruction of what appeared to be only for the benefit of the few, Had a fair appeal been made by either side to the intelligence and patriotism of the people, and their own great interest in the i.nstitution been set before them, there is no reason to doubt but that the sound policy which had originally appropriated these tunds to such a purpose, and of which no complaint had been made, would have been sustained. But no such appeal was made. Each party caught at the advantage to be gained by the apparent popularity of the measure, and the real interests and honour of the state were sacrificed by each. These days have passed away-and their delusions with them. To suppose that the people of Maryland would now upon a full and impartial consideration of this great subject, with all the lights which experience has thrownupon it, and the view which they must now take of their peculiar political relations, refuse to afford support to such an institution, would be to impute to them a degree of ignorance and prejudice, of which I trust and believe they are undeserving. If there were once doubts upon this subject, there can be none now. We have lived to witness the operation of the politrcal institutions founded by our fathers, E vents of the greatest interest have occurred, questions of the utmost moment have arisen, and principles vitally affecting us have been discussed and settled, and others arc continually recurring. In all these events and questions and discussions, the people of the United States have been made to sec and feel the force of talent, the power of mi nd, and sometimes also to see and feel the want of them. T alent and mental power, if not always conferred, yet are always increased by education; and that private enterprize is not to be rehed on to provide for their developcment and improvement, experience has proved. Therefore in almost all the states, particularly in such of them as have been most interested in these occurrences, oublic attention has been drawn to this subject, and wisely determining to call forth all the strength of their people, the public patronage has been given to the institutions of education. Maryland is a member of the American confederacy, united with the other independent states in one general government. It is her concern that her own political course should be directed by wisdom, and for this she must necessarily look to her own citizens. It is also and equally her concern that the general government should be wisely administered, and with a just regard to her own peculiar interests. She must furnish her quota of talent there. Her duty to the union requires this, her own preservation demands it. It is not enough for her that there should be fou nd there, wisdom and talent and patriotism; but she must see to it that Maryland wisdom and talent and patriotism arc found there. There is a great common inte- �i6 rest among thesestates, a bond of union, strong enough, we all hope, to endure the occasional conflicts of subordinate local interests. Bnt there are and ever will be these interests, and they will necessarily produce collision and eompetition. Hence will continually arise questions of great national concern, and more or less, according to their respective interests, of vital importance to the states. These are all to be considered, discussed and settled. That they may be settled with justice to herself, Maryland must meet this competition with all her strength. It is not in the number of her delegation that she is to trust. She may send one man who may be in himself a host. It is essential to her that her interest should be seen and felt, and that those who sec and feel it, should maintain it with all the power that talent and patriotism can wield. It is essential to her, and to every member of the union, that the agitations excited by these collisions should be kept from endangering the foundations upon which the fabric of our free institutions has been reared-that men of the highest powers and the purest principles should rule the deliberations of our ·national councils on these occasions of difficulty and danger, and preserve, through every storm that may assail it the union, the ark of our safety. It is no reproach to the wisdom of those who framed our constitution that they have left it exposed to danger from the separate interests and powers of the states. It was not to be avoided but by incurring far greater dangers. Nor is our situation in that respect without its advantages. These local interests are powerful excitements to the states to prepare and enrich their public men with the highest possible endowments. Their own immediate interest would afford a more constant and powerful stimulus to do this, than one more remote and felt only in common, which too often leaves its share of duty to others. But for this, a general degeneracy in talent and principle might prevail, and the great concerns of a growing nation sink into hands unfitted to sustain them. If Providence shall preserve us from these dangers, and give perpetmty to our institutions, Maryland will continue to see an increasing necessity (if she would avail herself of a just share of the benefits they are designed to confer) for calling forth and cultivating all her resources. And if this hope fails us, if the union is dissolved, in the distractions and dangers that will follow, she will, if possible, still more require the highest aid that the wisdom of her sons can afford, to guide her through that night of darkness. Time will not permit me to illustrate, as I would wish to do, what I have endeavoured to say of the peculiar politi- cal relations of the states, by exhibiting even a brief view of the various questions that have arisen, and of the principles that are yet to be settled between them. I will mention but one-one, which perhaps now occupies and divides the public mind more than any other. I mean internal improvement. It is yet unsettled whether this great concern is within the powers of the general government or is to devolve exclusively on the states. The interest of Maryland in the determination of this question is obvious; and if legislation upon this subject shall be assumed by congress, it is evident that new and continual competitions of great and increasing interest must arise among the states. In these how is Maryland to hope for success but from the ability of her representatives there? Whatever may be her natural and commercial advantages, it would be madness to trust to them alone to plead for her. If it shall be decided that the states alone are to have this subject within their direction, it becomes no less imperiously the duty of Maryland to call and qualify for that direction, all the talent it requires. I need not seek to awaken Maryland upon this subject. She is already regarding it with anxiety. But is there not an object for internal improvement, which, if overlooked, will render her anxiety unavailing? And does it not demand her first and greatest care? I mean not rivers, roads, canals, nor all the facilities of commerce--butthat which is above them all-which commands them all-at whose bidding the mountain opens to its base, and the waters of the cataract are still. I mean the mass of mind, the native talent of her population. And what is this without improvement? Inert and dead as the rocks and mountains upon which it would labour; wild and wasteful as the torrents it would controul--achaos of confusion, till called into life and form and vigour, by the light of science; and then, able to reduce into subjection all the elements of nature. This is the power which has placed a sister state foremost among the competitors for internal improvement; that has achieved for her the work to which she justly looks for the continuance of her pre-eminence. It is not to the instruments of labour, with which the work has been accomplished, nor to the hands that wielded them, that the people of that state are to ascribe the success of their efforts. These instruments might have been wielded forever in vain, even by their whole population. A far higher power must be called to these labours. The man of science must go before, and shew blind strength where he is to 3 �18 strike. And by the side of this man of science, or before him, must go the man of another and a higher science. The patriot and statesman, who makes all the powers of nature,. and the resources of art, tributary to his country's greatness -who works upon the noblest of all materials-the mind of man-and achieves higher .conquests than he who overcomes the obstacles of nature. For he has mountains of prejudice to remove, floods of passion to controul, mightier than those of nature. He is not only to form his own designs but he is to be ever prepared, to convince, to refute, to persuade, and to turn the judgments and affections of others into the channel of his own conceptions. This is the power which has given to New York the work to which she owes her ascendancy. And none can doubt to whom the monument should be erected that is to perpetuate the memory of the founder of her greatness. If then the accomplishment of such an object is to be attributed· not to matter, but to mind--and if thecultivation of the mind is essential to its successful operations, where is the wisdom of neglecting this, and attending to far inferior subjects of improvement? Shall Maryland apply her resources to roads and rivers, and make no effort to ohtam the science that is to form them into the veins and sinews of her strength? Shall she give millions for canals, and nothing for the makers of canals? . That her institutions of education are insufficient for the proper instruction of her youth, cannot be denied. Shall I be told that this is well? That Maryland may save her own revenues, and avail herself of the expenditures of other states? To this I answer, that it is neither to the honour nor interest of the state that 1t should be so. But 1t there be wisdom in such a policy, may not the other states be expected to adopt it, and thus the means of instruction be attainable no where? And can 1t be either honourable or safe to depend on the men of science of other states. even if we were sure they could be obtained there, when those very states may be our rivals in the objects for which we would engage them? We must therefore determine, either to rest contented in a perpetual and degrading inferiority, or depend, for the necessary means of success, only on ourselves. *If only 100 of her youth only are sent to other institutions, (and the number is believed to be greater,) the amount annually expended by them would exceed $20,000, which, if applied to an institution our own, would be adequate to the instruction of a much larger of number. 19 There has never been but one objection urged against the establishment of a college, that has the least appearance of pfausibility. It may be proper to consider it It is said to be partial in its benefits,. that its advantages are confined to its immediate neighbourhood, and to the wealthy of other portions of the state. If this were admitted, it might be asked if the same objection does not apply to every other institution? Locate your courts of justice, legislatures, academies, where you will, and some portions of the community will be more benefited by them than others. Again, place a college where you will, multiply them to any extent, and it will be only those who have some wealth and leisure that can enjoy their advantages. And shall nothing be done for the benefit of the community, because some portion of it may not be equally partakers of the benefit? It concerns the state that both poor and rich should be educated, as far as their means and situation will permit; but because it is impossible to give a high degree of education to the poor, shall it therefore be denied to the rich? But the supposition need not be admitted. It does confer great though not equal benefits, upon evt!ry class of society. Indirectlr, by the general improvement of the state, (if such as I have endeavoured to shew arc its effects) its benefits to all are obvious. But such an establishment may be so conducted as to present great and direct advantages to all. It may be mad,e, and should be made, a part of a general system of education, adapted to the wants and situation of the whole population. A connection may subsist between such an institution, and the academies and primary schools, equally important to all. The want of competent teachers for these academies, and the common schools in the state, has been long felt. And when the primary schools, about to be put in operation, call for their teachers, it will be found far easier to pass a law for schools, and to build school houses, than to procure teachers. The population of our own state, though the most proper on many accounts to resort to, is wholly insufficient to supply the present demand. Nor will it be found that they can be obtained from other states, witbout the temptation of exorbitant salaries, nor perhaps even then; for the same want is felt every where. Even in Massachusetts, where education has always been a most favourite object, the defi• ciency of teachers has been so great a subject of complaint, that they are now about to establish an institution for the purpose of preparing young men for such employments. �20 Maryland may establish a college which besides its other advantages, may supply this defect. What is to prevent the state's educating, at its college, a sufficient number of the poor of each county, under engagements that they shall teach in the primary schools and academies until they shall thus have repaid the expense of their education? A system like this, it is obvious, would, in a few years, ensure to those schools and academies, an adequate supply of teachers, from among our own people, qualified for the important trusts committed to them. Such a system would call forth, and cultivate, and apply to the most useful purposes, all the talent of the state, and diffuse its blessings among all classes of her population. Such a system would be as little partial in its benefits as any that could be devised. It would afford the only means of giving a competent education to all the poor, and of calling many of them to a still higher degree of instruction, which in no other way it would be possible for them to attain. Let it also be remembered, that every well taught citizen, whatever may be his condition, to whatever station in life he may belong, is, generally speaking, an advantage to the public. Therefore, although but a small number, in proportion to the whole population, may be qualified for higher usefulness by the acquisitions of learning, yet among them may be found some whom the state may proudly reckon as her greatest ornaments-to whom she may be indebted even for her preservation. The Roman historian, who records the effect produced upon the Roman senate by the prudence and eloquence of Cato, upon an occasion of imminent peril to the republic, shews how powerfully he was impressed by the consideration of what the efforts &f one man might accomplish, for the welfare of a nation. He is led, by the instance before him, to look back upon the past dangers, difficulties, and deliverances of his country, and he remarks of the "praeclara facinora," that adorned her history, that their success and jtlory are to be attributed to the exalted excellence of a few citizens "paucorum civium eximia virtus." We too may look back upon the short but eventful history of our country, and see a few names standing highly eminent above jeor associates. Men who first received in their own exalted minds the great conception, whose impulse they communicated to others-who led the way a the career af glory, and will ever be remembered as the fathers of the republic. In this great enterprize, requiring every faculty that nature could give, or art improve, or high principles excite, who can say they would have attained-who can say they would have attempted succenp if destitute of that intellectual and moral power which impelled and fitted them to the crisis? Take the opinion of one who stood conspicuous amon.g them-the author of the declaration of that independence which he had aided in accomplishing, who had employed a long life and a great mind in observing the springs of human conduct, and the policy of states, has left a memorable proof of the value at which he estimated literary institutions. His last and most zealous labours were devoted to the accomplishment of this object for his native state; and he regarded it as the greatest work he had been permitted to effect, expressing his desire, in preference to every other memorial of a life of public service, to b:e remembered "as the founder of the University of Virginia." Take also the opinion of another, who stood pre-eminent above them all-who will ever hold the .first place in the hearts of his countrymen, and in the admiration of the world -Read it in his farewell address, and in the generous appropriation uf his private funds, to secure this safe-guard to the liberties of his rescued country. Take further. the opinion of your own men-the patriots and statesmen of Maryland. who in '82, and again in '84, directed their earliest and most earnest efforts to the establishment of literary institutions under the patronage of the state, and declared that they considered them "as the surest basis of the stability and glory of a free republic.''* Will it be pretended that men like these were ignorant of the qualifications necessary to form useful citizens, or of the means of acquiring them, or that they overlooked the consideration that such means could not be afforded to all? Admitting, therefore, to the objection I have been con,sidering, all it uemands-that but few comparatively can receive the advantages that the establishment of a literary institution affords-it is still a sufficient answer, that those few may be looked to with confidence, to make full returns to the state for her care and patronage. Every eminent and gifted man, who may be thus prepared for usefulness becomes the property of the state, will be of more value, and will be more valued, than all the wealth that a parsimonious policy could heap together in her treasury. *See in Appendix page i. �May I not call then upon the legislators of Maryland, who are to provide for her present welfare, and her future glory, to consider whether it should not be their first and greatest care to secure for her service, successive generations of en- lightened patriots? Whether it be wise to confine the progress. of improvement to the mere surface of her earth, and shut ·out its light and vivifyi.ng influence from the bosoms of her children? May I not call upon them to make perfect and effectual the system of instruction they have commenced, to apply in this age of improvement, the spirit of improvement to its greatest and noblest objects, and to lay the deep and broad foundations of their country's greatness, in the religious, moral, and intellectual culture of her people. As I believe that a just consideration of thi,s subject now, or a further experience of the danger of neglecting it, will bring us to resolve that the state shall.no longer remain destitute of an institution for qualifying her citizens for her service, permit me, before I conclude, to endeavour to shew that the establishment should be here. I have already said that the state should not only furnish the necessary funds for .its support, but also that care and superintendance, which arc equally necessary for its success. The public should be made to understand and sec and feel its interest in the object, to take a pride in its annual displays of cultivated talent, and to encourage, by the incitement of its presence and approbation, youthful ardour to its highest efforts. Where else can the interest, inspection and patronage of the state be adequately called forth, and advantageously exercised, but at the scat of government? Where else can it be situated to be made conspicuous throughout the state, where its progress can be made the subject of general observation, the public care directed to its improvement, and right views of its importance and usefulness diffused among the citizens? These attentions will be essential during the years of its infancy; and when its fruits.shall appear and be distributed among the counties, when they are seen in the various departments of .honourable employment, and felt in imparting new vigour to the enterprize and character of the state, it will win its way, by the benefits it bestows, to the favour it demands. Where else, I may also ask, can the influence and excitements so important to impel the youthful mind to the arduous prosecution of its labours, be so effectually afforded as here? where the highest talents of the state are col- lected before them, and called to their highest exercise-where measures of the deepest interest to the state and general governments are discussed and decided, and the exalted feelings and duties of patriotism are mingled with their earliest conceptions-where they are perpetually reminded, by what they see and hear, of their obligations, as men and citizens of a free and happy country, and encouraged to perseverance by the examples placed before them of what diligence may accomplish. I will further say, that it should be here-because it was here. Justice demands its restitution. Thirty years ago I stood within tbat hall, with the associates of my early joys and labours, and bade farewell to them; to our revered instructors, to the scenes of our youthful happiness, and received the parting benediction of that beloved and venerated man* who ruled the institution he had reared, and adorned, not more by the force of authority than of affection. In a few short years I returned;• and the companions and the guides of my youth were gone--andthe glory of the temple of science, which the wisdom and piety of our fathers had founded, was departed. I saw in its place a dreary ru,in. I wandered over its beautiful and silent green, no longer sacred to the meditations of the enraptured student, nor vocal with the joyous shout of youthful merriment. I sat upon the mouldering steps of that lonely porticol and beneath the shadow of that ancient tree, that seemed hke me to lament its lost companions-and the dreams of other days came over me-and I mourned over the madness that had worked this desolation. . If I have ever felt the impulse to mingle in the councilof my country, it was in these scenes and at these moments, when filial affection to my alma mater, and love to ·my native state, united to impel me to redress the wrongs of the one, and efface the foulest blot upon the name of the other. Though compelled to leave these duties to other sons, and to become an alien to my state,my heart has been ever steadfast in its allegiance--and the request, with which I have been honomed to appear on this occasion, revived recollections and desires I could make no effort to resist. Let it be shewn then to the people, and legislature of Maryland, that if the high arid warm feelings of patriotism cannot be roused to give to the state an institution essential *Dr. John McDowell. �to her honour and her safety, the eolder but sterner principle of justice may be appealed to, and must yield it. Let it be shewn that the state was not the sole founder of the College--that individuals made liberal donations to its funds, upon the plighted faith of the state, that they should bemade available by a public appropriation, adequate to its support. Though its friends and patrons have long mourned over its declension, though deprived of the public patronage it was left to languish and almost to die, and the pathetic 'exclamation of "Troja fuit" was the language of her sons. Yet are we now presented with brighter views. We owe our thanks for this to those whose zeal and ardour have excited them to renewed efforts in her behalf· who with. limited means, and against many difficulties, haveexhibited before us on this occasion the interesting and gratifying fruits of their labours. But little, compared with the greatness of the object, is required to be done, to give to the state what it once had h e rliterary e , institution, a equal in usefulness to any other in our country. I may have spoken in vain to the legislators and the citizens of Maryland. Public opinion may be slower in its discernments and operations, than one as inexperienced as l am on such subjects, may have supposed. But I have the consolation of knowing that experience, if a slow, is a sure teacher; and that it cannot he long before .Maryland will be made to feel her need of men of high attainments in political and natural science, gifted with the powers necessary to successful service, and to see that the only way to secure them, 1s to rear them herself. I have also the consolation of knowing, (and I cannot express the gratification with which I feel it,) that I have not spoken in vain-that I could not speak in vam, upon such a subject, to some who are my hearers--who required no speaker to awaken in their bosoms emotions that no language could excite; to whom it 1s excitement enough that they are here-in the midst of scenes that ,call around them the recollections of the days that are past, when the morning of life, and the light of. intellectual 1_mprovement, and the warm associations of early friendship, gave all their brightness to the joys and the visions of youth. To whom it is still more exciting that they are here together, assembled as brethren, bound by the same ties ot love, and veneration to their common mother, to· do her honour, and (may I not say) to do her service. *See Appendix. For shall we separate from these scenes and extinguish these teelings? May I not call upon the Alumni of St. John's, and those whom we have this day welcomed to a participation in her honours, to stand forth and pledge themselves to her cause? To make an appeal inher behalf to the patriotism and justice of their fellow-citizens-to make it till it is heard throughout the bounds of the state-to make it till it is successful? Let not this filial duty be delayed. Death has already thinned your ranks. Your eldest bretheren * have run their brief but honourable course, and are no more. He, too, who had caught within that hall the bold spirit of the ancient eloquence from its mightiest master; who, if he had been spared to stand before you this day, would have roused you from your seats, and called you to join your hearts and hands in a sacred covenant to restore its honours to St. Joh n's, and tu swear to its fulfilment by the memory of the dead, the hopes of the living, an'd the glory of unborn generations-He, alas! is a light shining no more upon the earth. He, also, who excelled in all the attainments of mind, and charmed with all the attractions of virtue; who could descend at will from the highest soaring in the regions of fancy, and be found foremost in the steepest ascents of the paths of science; he who had here caught - - - - - "the glow, "The warmth divine that Poets know.'' And whose lyre, upon a theme that touched these scenes of his inspiration, would have poured forth its most impassioned strains, and compelled the hearts that eloquence could not subdue, to bow to the magic of its song. He, too, the ornament of St. Joh n's, and the leader of her tenth. legion,§ has had our tears, and sleeps not in an honoured grave. but beneath the wave of the ocean. Nor can he\! be forgotten, the last but not least lamented of our departed brethren, who would have been among the foremost to offer the feelings of a warm heart, and the powers of a gifted mind, to the labours to which I have invit*Alexander-Carr-Lomax. ¶ John Hanson Thomas, of Frederick. The allusion is to a passage in his oration at the commencemept·in which his class graduated, exhibiting a most l1appy imitation of the celebrated oath of Demosthenes. The Virginia University ity is now indebted to that class for her Professor of Law, and Chairman of her Faculty. § John Shaw, M. D. of Annapolis, whose class used to be thus designated by the c classicVice President of the College. Henry M. Murray of Annapolis. 4 �ed you. Who had already done so, and stands enrolled 1n the records of the college, among those who repaid, by their counsels at her board, the honours she had bestowed. Whose zeal and ability would have performed more than his share of the duty, while his unassuming and generous nature would have refused any portion of the praise. The awful providence which removed him, in the midst of life and usefulness, from the profession he adorned, the society he blessed, and the friends he delighted, has called upon our College to mourn the double loss of an honoured son, and a devoted patron. But it becomes us not to murmur under this mysterious dispensation-rather to be thankful that it has left, to console and animate us, a cherished memory and a high example. You have lost the assistance of associates like these. And we who survive, are soon to follow them. But let the thought of your diminished strength, and the remembrance of what you have lost, urge you-not to despair, but to effort Remember the truth declared and attested by history, that the accomplishment of great events depends often, if not always,,on the ardour and energy of a few. And when Maryland shall receive from the institution, your labours shall have revived, her able and well trained advocates, the promoters of her future greatness; when, by the aid thus afforded, she shall attain her just rank in the American Union, and the full measure of her prosperity, then shall it be said of her "praeclara facinora," as of those of Rome, "paucorum civium eximiam virtutem cuneta. patravisse." APPENDIX -♦- Preamble to an act passed April session 1822, chap. 8. ' "WHEREAS institutions for the liberal education of youth in the principles of virtue, knowledge, and useful litera ture are of the highest benefit to society, in order to raise up and perpetuate a succession of able and honest men, for discharging the various offices and duties of the community, both civil and religious with usefulness and reputation, and such institutions of learning have accordmgly merited and received the attention and encouragement of the wisest and best regulated states: And whereasformer legislatures of this state have, accordmg to their best abilities, laid a considerable foundation in this good work, in sundry laws for the establishment and encouragement of county schools, for the study of Latin, Greek, Writing, and the like, intending, as their future circumstances might permit to engraft or raise, on the foundation of said schools, more extensive seminaries oflearning, by erecting one or more colleges, or places of universal study, not onJy in the learned languages, but in philosophy, divinity, law, physic, and other useful and ornamental arts and sciences: And whereas this great and laudable undertaking hath been retarded by sundry mcidents of a public nature, but chiefly by the great difficulty. of fixing a situat10n on either shore of this state for a semmary of universal learning, which might be of equal benefit and convemence to the' youth of both shores; and it having been represented to this general assembly, that it would probab_ly tend most to the immediate advancement of literature in this state, if the inhabitants of each shore should be left to consult their own convenience, in founding and freely endowmg a college or seminary of general learning, each for themselves, under the sanction of law; which two colleges or seminaries if thought most conducive to the advancement of learning, religion and good government, may afterwards, by common consent, when duly founded and endowed, united under one supreme legislature and visitatorial jurisdiction, as distinct branches or members of the same ui,iversity, notwithstandmg their distance of situation: And whereas Joseph Nicholson, James Anderson, John he state �ii APPENDIX. Scot, William Boardly, and Peregrine Lethrbury, Esqrs. William Smith, Doctor of Divinity, and Benjamin Chambers, Esquire, the present visitors of Kent county school in the town of Chester, have representeu to this general nssembly, that the said school hath of late increased greatly, by an accession of students and scholars from various parts of the eastern shore of this state, and the neighbouring Delaware state, there being now about one hundred and forty students and scholars in the said school, and the number expected soon to increase to at least two hundred; and that the Latin and Greek languages, English, French, writing, merchants accounts, and the different branches of the mathematics, are taught in the same, under a sufficient number of able and approved masters; that sundry of the students are preparing and desirous to enter upon a course of philosophy, and must repair to some other state, at a very grievous and inconvenient expense, to finish their education, unless they, the said visitors, are enabled to enlarge the plan of the said school, by engrafting thereon a system of liberal education in the arts and sciences, and providing necessary books and apparatus, with an additional number of masters and profes:sors; and the said visitors have further expressed their assurance, that if they were made capable in law of erecting the said school into a college or general seminary of learning for the eastern shore, or peninsula between the bays of Chesapeake and Delaware, (maintaining the original design of the said school as a foundation not to be violated) very considerable sums could be raised in a few years, within the said peninsula, by free and voluntary contributions, for the establishment and support of such seminary, and have accordingly prayed, that a law may be passed to enable them, the said visitors, to enlarge and improve the said school into a college, or place of universal learning, with the usual privileges: Now this general assembly, taking the said petition into their serious consideration, and being desirous to encourage and promote knowledge within this state, have agreed to enact." Preamble, &c. to an act passed November session 1784, chap. 37. "WHEREAS institutions for the liberal education of youth m the prmc1ples of virtue, knowledge, and useful literature, are of the highest benefit to society, in order to train up and perpetuate a succession of able and honest men for discharging the various offices and duties of life, both civil and religious, with usefulness and reputation, and such institutions of learning have accordingly been promoted and APPENDIX. iii encouraged by the wisest and best regulated states: And whereas it appears to this general assembly, that. many publie spirited rnd1v1duals, from an earnest desrre to promote the founding a college or seminary of learning on the western shore of this state, have subscribed and procured subscriptions to a considerable amount, and there is reason to believe that very large additions will be obtained to the same throughout the different counties of the said shore, if they were made capable in law to receive and apply the same towards founding and carrying on a college or general seminary of learning, with such salutary plan, and with such legislative assistance and direction as the general assembly might think fit; and this general assembly, highly approving those generous exertions of individuals, are desirous to embrace the present favourable occas1011 of peace and prosperity, for making lasting provision for the encouragement and advancen1ent of all useful knowledge and literature through every part of this state." "XIX. And, to provide a permanent fund for the further encouragement and establishment of the said college on the western shore, Be it enacted, That the sum of one thousand seven hundred and fifty pounds current money, be annually and for ever hereafter given and granted as a donation by the public, to the use of the said college on the western shore, to be applied by the visitors and governors. of the said college to the payment of salaries to the principal, professors and tutors, of the said college. "XX. And, as a certain and permanent fund to procure the said sum of one thousand seven hundred and fifty pounds current money annually, for the use aforesaid, Be it enacted, That the sum of twenty-five shillings current money, imposed by the act, entitled, An act concerning marriages, for every marriage licence, and hereafter to be received by the clerks of any of the counties of the western shore, and paid by them to the treasurer of the said shore, agreeably to the directions of the said act, shall remain in his hands, subject to the order of tbe visitors and governors of the said college, to be drawn according to the directions of this act. "XXI. And be it enacted, That every fine, penalty or forfeiture, for any offence (except only for treason) at common law, or by any act of assembly now in force, or hereafter to be made, and hereafter imposed by the general court on the western shore, or by any county court of that shore, or any judge of justice of either court, and every recognizance taken by the general or any county court on. �iv APPENDIX. APPENDIX. the western shore, or any judge or justice- of either of the said courts, and hereafter forfeited in the said general court or county court, and collected or received, shall be paid to the treasurer of the western shore, and shall remain in his hands, subject to the orders of the visitorsand governors of the said college, to be drawn accordrng to the directions of this act. "XXII. And be it enacted, That the regulations and provisions made in the act of assembly, entitled, An act for licensing. and regulating ordinary keepers, passed at March session, seventeen hundred and eighty, (except such parts of the said act as relate to the retailing of liquors by merchants or store-keepers, or at horse races,) shall be and remain in full force for ever, as to the granting licences on the western shore (except in the city of Annapolis and the precincts thereof;) and the money hereafter collected for ordinary licences granted on the western shore, and paid to the treasurer of the said shore, shall remain in his hands, subject to the orders of the vis_itors and governors of the said college, to be drawn according to the d1rect1ons of this OUTLINE OF A COLLEGE. The following sketch has been prepared in consequence of a suggestion to that effect from some gentlemen who feel interested in the subject, and who think it desirable that a view of the nature of the institution to be established, and of the manner of its government and support, should be presented for the consideration of the public. I have made use of the best means in my power to enable me to do this, having .consulted with some intelligent friends, and examined such of the most modern systems of public education; with some of the more ancient, to which I could have access. As I hope others, who have leisure will feel disposed to consider this interesting subject, would recommend them to refer to Rollin's Method, (4th vol.) and Jardme's Outlmes of Ph1losoph1cal Education. act." Since the decision, in 4th Wheaton, 518, of Dartmouth College against Woodward, it cannot be questioned, but that the provisions in the charter above specified, operate as a contract, which no act of the legislature, without the consent of the college, can constitutionally revoke. I GOVERNMENT I would recommend a modification of the present charter, so as to place the government of the college in the Governor of the stateand two Visitors from each county. The visitors in each county to be annually appointed by the Judges of the County Court, or by the Grand Jury. These should form a body to appoint the Professors and Faculty, pass by-laws for their government, and determine the course of study. The Faculty to consist of the President and Professors and an Officer* to be annually elected by the Faculty and Students, called the Rector or Patron, to whom they are to resort as the guardian of their privileges, to whose recommendations, upon all their appeals to him, they are to submit, and whose consent should be necessary to every sentence of expulsion. The most important duty of the Governor and Visitors would relate to the adoption of a pr_oper course of study. By selectmg two gentlemen of learnmg and experience in each county, who before they meet, can consider the subject, and then compare with each other the views they have respectively thought proper to present, the best opportunity will be afforded for digesting a perfect and satisfactory system . *This idea is taken from an account of the University of Glasgow. Jt perhaps also usual in the other Scotch Colleges. It is thought to have a good effect m promoting orcler and submission to authority. If conferred (as 1t is -generally in Glasgow) upon the most distinguighed men, they would consequently have considerable influence with the students. He should deliver an annual address, as is usual there. is �vi APPENDIX, FUNDS. The annual amount furnished by the state to St. John's College, by the act of 1784, was £1750. If it is determined that there should be but one institution for the whole state, twice that amount might be given. As it is intended to propose to institute six fellowships for the most deserving among the graduates, (as will be explained hereafter,) estimated at $300 each, and to maintain and educate* twenty boys gratuitously, which will cost about $200 each, $5,800 should be added on these accounts. Making, say $9,300, to be applied annually by the state to the institution. As, however, it is proposed that these twenty boys should repay these expenses incurred for them, by their services as teachers afterwards, $4000 of the above should be considered as loaned, not given. But if the state made an annual donation of $12,000 to such a purpose, it could not be considered unreasonably applied to so important an object. If it was found necessary to raise it by a direct tax, it cannot be supposed that the people would consider it a burden, when its objects and consequences were explained to them, and when they see most of the states doing so much more. It some indirect mode must be resorted to, I would suggest a small tax upon legacies. This would be paid without being felt, and collected without expense, a very trifling commission being deducted, and paid into the registry of the orphans court of each county, on the passing of the administrator's account. A donation from the state will also be required at the establishment of the college, to compleat the library and philosophical apparatus. COURSE OFSTUDIES. This being left, as before proposed, to the determination of the Governor and Visitors, the following is offered for their consideration: The course to be completed in four years, one vacation of two months in each year, and another of two weeks, dividing the period of instruction into two terms oi four months and three weeks each. The last two weeks of each term to be devoted to reviewing the studies of the term, and preparation for examination. Public examinations of each class, during the two last days of each term, and exercises in public. *These should be selected ln the counties by the Visitors appointed by each county. APPENDIX. vii Studies of the first year, or Freshman Class. 1st Term. Latin. Greek. English Language,* and Literature. Readings and Recitations of English prose writers. Compositions in English. Arithmetic. 2d Term. Same as above, with the addition of Readings and Recitations of English Poets. Algebra. Mathematics begun, and attending a weekly lecture to be delivered by one of the fellows, or a student of the senior class, on Natural History. To be admitted to this class the student should be able to read Ovid and Sallust, and to make Latin exercises with facility, with a thorough knowledge of the Grammar, and sufficient Prosody to read Hexameter verse.§ In Greek, he should have passed carefully through Jacob's Reader, and be well acquainted with the grammar, (not meaning the whole of Buttman,) and be able to make Greek exercises. He should write a plain hand, read correctly, and know the ordinary rules in Arithmetic. The attention to English, duringthis year, I think important. The exercises required in that language will prepare the students for the translation and themes of the higher classes, which they will do more easily, and better, after acquiring a knowledge of their own language, and some practice in composition. Reading and Reciting English is ·necessary to make them good readers, and is the only true foundation for properly teaihing elocution. An hour a day, or every other day, should be thus employed. Their teacher ( who should be a man of taste, and a good reader,) should select passages, requiring all the varieties of manner and expression, from the best authors, which he should read to them, and make them read to him, till they could deliver them with proper effect. And as it would be necessary they should understand and feel what they read, (the true secret of reading well,) this exercise would improve their understandings, feelings and tastes. The weekly lecture on Natural History, like the readings I have just mentioned, should be an intellectual treat to • Abridgement of Tooke's Diversions of Purley, and a few extracts rfom Murray's large Grammar, and selections from Blair. ~If the candidate were deficient in this he should be made to acquire it, (as he could in a week,) before he joined the class. 5 �viii APPENDIX. the students; and it . is important to make some of their studies agreeable. It should be a sort of introduction to the science, and an allurement to prosecute it, by setting before them some of the most interesting researches that have been made The preparation into the subjects of which it treats. and delivery of these lecture would be a highly impruvmg exerc1se to the senior class, to whom, or to the fellows occasionally, it shoulcl be altogether allotted. SOPHOMORE CLASS. 1st Term. Latin. Greek. English composition, and Mathematics continued. Ancient History and Geography. 2d Term. Same-applying English compositions to translations from Latin and Greek, and themes ·on subjects proposed in the Lectures; with the addition of French and lectures on Intellectual Philosophy. ' Durmg this year Latin and Greek are continued by reading the authors in the usual way. English compositions in the last term, are _applied to written translations from those languages. The lectures on Intellectual Philosophy should embrace a sufficient portion both of Logic and Metaphysics; I mean as they are both now improved. They should teach the student not only that the mind has the faculty of reasoning, and how it is to be exercised and improved, but should put it into exercise upon various subjects. JUNIOR CLASS. 1st Term. Critical reading of select Latin Classics, with translations from Latin to English, and from English to Latin. Greek continued. Modern History and Geography. French and Mathematics continued. 2d Term-Same continued, with lectures on Belles Lettres, and Natural History. Reading the Latin Classics is now made an exercise of criticism upon passages selected for that purpose, and the translations should be required to be more free and spirited. Greek is continued in the usual way. ix APPENDIX. SENIOR CLASS. 1st Term. Translations from select Latin Classics, and from English writers int0 Latir.. Critical readings of Greek Classics. French and Mathematics continued. History and Geography reviewed. Study of German Language.* Natural Philosophy. Lectures on the Evidences of Christianity. 2d Term-Translations from Latin and Greek to English, and from English to Latin and Greek. Translations from French. Mathematirs. Natural Philosophy and German concluded. Hebrew. t Original compositions in English, to be read in public. Lectures on the Evidences of Christianity concluded. Lectures on Political Economy. The Greek is read in this year during the first term, only critically, in selected passages, as the Latin in the former year, and in the last term; instruction in both those languages is confined to written translations, which should be given out twice or thrice a week, these should be read in the class, and commented on by the Professor. It will be observed, that I propose to continue instruction in Mathematics and the Classics throughout the course. I consider them the most important studies. The one improves the mind, and gives the ability to think better than any other study. The other, to give taste, and the power of expressing thought and feeling in the most.effectual manner, is indispensable. If the classics are omitted, or much neglected during the last year, (as is too common,) there is not only no improvement made, but what was learned is lost, and the student is taught the strange lesson of neglecting and forgetting, for the sake of other acquisitions, what he has already learned. The above is rroposed as a course for the under graduates. I have omitted Moral Philosophy, because the Latin and Greek, and the New Testament, which they will read, will furnish a better system of instruction, (in the hands of competent and pious teachers,) than could be afforded in a course of lectures. I have not made a Professorship of Logic, because a little of it will be given in the lectures of what I have termed "Intellectual Philosophy," and the art of reasoning will be better acquired by the mathematical studies, and the exercises in composition, than by any regular system of logic. *This should be a voluntary study. Voluntary. �xi APPENDIX. APPENDIX. It is meant that the classes should be regularly examined upon every lecture they attend, and write th emes upon the subjects discussed in them, and also that half (or ii necessary the whole) of one day in each week, should be devoted to the review of that week's studies, preparatory to a weekly examination; and in the same manner a like review and examination at the close of each month, at which the Principal, and all the Professors, are to attend. Such a course as is here specified would require the fol. lowing Professors, in addition to the President: Professor of Latin and Ancient History and Geography. Professor· of Greek and Hebrew. Professor of Delles L ettres, English Literature, Modem History and Geography. Professor of Mathematics. Professor of Natural Philosophy and N atural History. Professor of French and German. The duties of the President should be those of a general superintendence and lecturing on the evidences of Ch ri stianity. He should also perform the daily religious exercises of the College, and preach to the students on Sundays in the hall, or appoint one of the professors to that duty. Students, whose parents desired it, could be allowed to attend any other place of worship. THE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION. That this is a science, and a very difficult one, will be admitted. Yet among the number engaged in it, very few have received any instruction. It is true there are some good works upon the subject, but there also bad ones. Nor is it certain that those who are so employed seek for information on the subject. Every teacher adopts his own system, and improves it only by his own experience. This cannot be supposed nght by any one who will consider its importance. The most learned man in sciences and languages may be utterly unable to excite a desire for learning in his pupils, to form their minds, dispositions, habits and tastes, and to impart his knowledge to them in a way best suited to their capacities. And all this is certainly his business as a teacher. To acquire this, he should have the benefit of consulting the wisdom and experience of others, and become informed of the many improvements that are continually making in this as in other pursuits.* As it is contemplated to make teachcr.s in the primary schools and academics, of the students who arc to be gratuitously educated at the college from the different count ies, it will be rnore necessary that a branch of instruction, so extensively useful, should not be neglected, x PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION For the benefit of such of the graduates as might remain and such other students as might attend, I would propos; the following additional Professorships: 1st. Of the Science of Agriculture. 2d. Of Education. 3d. Of Eloquence. 4th. Of Law. 5th. Of Military and Civil Engineering and Mili tary Tactics. It will be necessary to explain what is meant by them . There are branches of Mechanics, Chemi stry, N atural Philosophy, and Natural History, whose conn ection with agriculture is obvious. A course of lectures for a year upon those sciences as thus connected, would afford the best preparation for agricultural life. They could be made so interesting and useful that very few educated young men, rntendmg to devote themselves to that pursuit, would fail to attend them. PROFESSOR OF ELOQUENCE This professorship is recommended by Jardine, t and would certainly be highly useful, not only to the law students, but to many others. It should occupy one year, and should be so arranged that it could be attended to with the two former and with the first year of the law lectures. Of the remaining two nothing need be particularly said. The legal course should occupy two years, allowing the student to devote his third year to the more practical parts of his profession, in the office of a lawyer in business, and in attending the courts. I have omitted two professions, Divinity and Medicine, not as being less important, but because they can be better attend ed to elsewhere. The latter, it is obvious, is already sufficiently provided for, at a place where eminent teachers can be more readily obtained, and greater facilities afforded for giving instruction. The former it is difficult if not impossible to combine with a general system of See extracts from Carter's Essays Page xiii See Page xvi �xii APPENDIX. education. Preference could not be given to any particular sect, and to allow, (as is done in the Virginia University, and some others) each denomination to establish a professorship of its own, would it may be feared, produce confusion and controversy. The religious part of the community seem sensible of this, and therefore no attempt has been made, by any denomination, to avail themselves of such a privilege. These professerships, being intended for the graduates, and other students, need not considerably increase the expenses-of the institution. If eminent men are appointed, they would, in several, if not in all of them, command classes that would make it unnecessary to give salaries; or at least they might be very moderate. The professor of education would perhaps require a salary competent to his support; and from the. nature of his services in quahfyrng teachers for all the institutions of learning in the state, it would be proper to afford it This would be the more reasonable, as he would have the instruction of the graduates who were gratuitously educated for that purpose. There remains one other subject of rem31rk-the Fellowships. I have suggested six. These should be elected by the Faculty, from among the most meritorious graduates. I have estimated them at $300 each, as that sum would afford a tolerable support to a single man, and at the same time excite them to exertions to add to their income by useful publications a:1d improvements. They should have the benefit of the College Library, and rooms and apparatus, and devote themselves to such branches of science and literature as they might prefer. To prevent them from becoming sinecures for sloth or amusement, they should understand it to be expected of them, to produ.ce some useful results from their studies, and at the end of each year, there should be a re-election, when all who had done nothing, nor given hopes of doing any thing, could be removed. It wouldalso be useful to adopt the idea of Lord Bacon in his Nova Atlantis, and send two of theln every year to visit the other states and foreign countries, for their improvement, and to bring back with them the knowledge of such important inventions and works, as might be introduced into our country. It is impossible to calculate the advantages that might result from the labours of a small body of learned men, thus devoting all their time to such pursuits. If the state had possessed such men thirty or forty years ago, the many APPENDIX. xiii thousands of dollars thrown into the Potomac river, for the impracticable pu,rpose of making it navigable by removing the obstructions in its channel, would have been saved. And this want of men of science is as much felt now, and the consequences may be the same to some of the many works now projected. We are to send to England, or other parts of Europe, for such men. Besides the consideration that there is something a little degrading in this, is our success certain? Can our confidence be the same as if a man of our own was selected? Such men, as we should wish to come for such a purpose, will not come, for they can get, and will prefer employment at home. That some will come, there is no doubt -and they will do, or undertake to do, whatever we chuse to pay them for. The following Extracts are from the excellent Essays of Mr. Carter upon Popular Education. "It will do but little good, for example, for the legislature of a state to make large appropriations directly for the support of schools, till a judicious expenditure of them can be ensured. And in order to this, we must have skilful teachers at hand. It will do but little good to class the children, till we have instructors properly prepared to take charge of the classes. It will do absolutely no good to constitute an independent tribunal to decide on the qualifications of the teachers, while they have not had the opportunities necessary for coming up to the proper standard. And it will do no good to overlook and report upon their success, when we know beforehand, that they have not the means of success. It would be beginning wrong, to build houses, and to tell your young and inexperienced instructors to teach this, or to teach that subject, however desirable a knowledge of such subjects might be, while it is obvious, they cannot know how, properly, to teach any subject. The science of teaching, for it must be made a science, is first, in the order of nature, to be inculcated. And it is to this point that the public attention must first be turned, to effect any essential improvement. And here, let me remark upon a distinction in the qualifications of teachers, which has never been practically made; though it seems astonishing that it has so long escaped notice. �xiv xv APPENDIX. I allude to the distinction between the possession or knowledge, and the ability to communicate it to other minds. When we are looking for a teacher, we inquire how much he knows, not how much he can communicate; as if the latter qualification were of no consequence to us. Now it seems to me, that parents and children, to say the least, are as much interested in the latter qualification of their instructor as in the former. Though a teacher cannot communicate more knowledge than he possesses; yet he may possess much, and still b able to impart but little. And the knowledge of Sir Isaac Newton could be of but trifling use to a school while it was locked up safely in the head of a country school-master. So far as the object of a school or of instruction, therefore, is the acquisition of knowledge, novel as the opinion may seem, it does appear to me, that both parents and pupils are even more intel'ested, in the part of their teacher's knowledge, which they will be likely to get, than in the part which they certainly cannot get. One great object in the education of teachers, which it is so desirable on every account to attain, is to establish an intelligible language of commumcation between the instructor and his pupil, and enable the former to open his head and his heart, and infuse into the other some of the thoughts and feelings which lie hid there. Instructors and pupils do not understand each other. They do not speak the same language. They may use the same words; but this can hardly be called the same language, while they attach to them such very different meanings. We must either, by some magic or supernatural power bring children at once to comprehend all our abstract and difficult terms; or our teachers must unlearn 'themselves and come down to the comprehensions of children. One of these alternatives is only difficult, while the other is impossible. The direct, careful preparation of instructors for the profession of teaching, must surmount this difficulty; and I doubt if there be any other way, in which it can be surmounted. When instructors understand their profession; that is, in a word, when they understand the philosophy of the infant mind, what powers are earliest developed, and what studies are best adapted to their developernent; then it will be time to lay out and subdivide their work into an energetic system of public instruction. Till this step towards a reform, which is preliminary to its very nature, be taken, every other measure must be adopted in the dark, and, therefore, be liable to fail utterly of its intended result. Houses and funds and books, are all indeed important; but they are only the means of enabling the minds of the teachers to act upon the minds of the pupils. And they must, inevitably, fail of their happiest effects, till the minds of the teachers have been prepared to act upon those of their pupils to the greatest advantage. "The philosophy of theinfant mind must be understood by the instructor, before much progress can be made in the science of education; for a principal branch of the scienee consists in forming the mind. And the skill of the teacher in this department is chiefly to be seen in his judicious adaptation of means to the developement of the intellectual faculties. Every book, therefore, which would aid in the analysis of the youthful mind, should be placed in the library of the proposed institution. "The human heart, the philosophy of its passions and its affections, must be studied by those who expect to influence those passions and form those affections. This branch of the subject includes the government of children, especially in the earliest stages of their discipline. The success of the teacher here depends upon the good judgment with which he arranges and presents to his pupils the motives that will soonest move them, and most permanently influence their actions. "The mistaken or wicked principles of parents and instructors, in this department of education, have no doubt perverted the dispositions, of many hopeful children. If successful experience has been recorded, it should be brought to the assistance of those who must otherwise act without experience. "After the young candidate for an instructor therefore has aquired sufficient knowledge for directing those exercises, and teaching those branches which he wishes to profess, he must then begin his labours under the scrutinizing eyes of one who will note his mistakes of government, and faults of instruction, and correct them; the experienced and skilful professor of the science will observe how the mind of the young teacher acts upon that of the learner, he will see how far and how perfectly they understand each other, ahd which is at fault, if they do not understand each other at all. If the more inexperienced teacher should attempt to force upon the mind of a child an idea or a process of reasoning,for which it was not in a proper state, he would be checked at once, and told of his fault; and thus perhaps 6 �xvi APPENDIX.. the pupil would be spared a disgust for a particular study, or an aversion to all study. As our earliest experience would in this manner be under the direction of those wiser than ourselves, it would the more easily be classed under general principles for our direction afterwards. This part of the necessary course in an institution for the education of teachers might be much aided by lectures. Children exhibit such and such intellectual phenomena; the scientific professor of education can explain those phenomena and tell from what they arise. If they are favourable, he can direct how they are to be encouraged and turned to account in the developement and formation of the mind. If they are unfavourable, he can explain by what means they are to be overcome or corrected. Seeing intellectual results he can trace them, even through complicated circumstances, to their causes; or, knowing the causes and circumstances, he can predict the result that will follow them. Thus every days experience would be carefully examined, and made to limit or extend the comprehension of the general principles of the science. Is there any other process or method than this to arrive at a philosophical system of education? If any occurs to other minds it is to be hoped that the public may soon have the benefit of it." Extract from Professor Jardine's Outlines of Philosophical Education, p. 509, on Professional Education. "The third branch which I have proposed as an addition to the course of professional education, is a class for the improvement of eloquence. "This proposal I am aware, may appear to many persons to be both less practicable and less useful, than either of the two former-and besides, as there are already in our universities professors of rhetoric, whose office it is to teach at least the principles of eloquence, an additional rnstitution for a purpose so nearly similar may appear unnecessary. These remarks, however, do not apply to the object whicb I have in view. It is not the science of eloquence merely which I would have taught in our colleges; it is the art of speaking, founded on practice, and illustrated by example, which I regard as a valuable desideratum in our academical course. But before I can distinctly state the object of the class I am now proposing, there are two or three points which must be discussed and settled, in order to establish its practicability. In the first place, I should not despair APPENDIX. xvii found being able to prove, that the seeds of eloquence are to be found scattered in every mind, in a greater or less degree; and also, that there is a certain attainable improvement in that art, to which every student may be successfully carried, by means of judicious training. It is not pretended, indeed, that even the best system of instruction, in this department, will render a man a Demosthenes or a Cicero; but it is maintained, at the same time, that much benefit may arise from cultivating the original powers of the mind, of the voice, and of the ear, whatever may be their limits; as well as from presenting an opportunity to young men, of ascertaining the extent of the gifts which they have received from nature, and of turning them to the best advantage. In this, as in all other branches of education, many individuals, it is true, will derive little profit from the labours of the teacher. "Again, I have to observe, that considering the great importance of eloquence to public men, it is an object worthy of national attention to provide means for improving it, even though the greater number of students should fail to attain the qualifications of a finished orator. The advantages attending such a class would not; however1 be confined to a few. The majority of the young men who should enter it, would infallibly gain improvement, as well from their own practice, as from the example of others; and if we estimate aright the high value of a distinct and effective mode of delivery, in the church, at the bar, and above all in the two houses of Parliament, we shall find that 1t 1s of more consequence to promote, even though in an inferior degree, the general culture of this talent, than to confer the highest oratorical accomplishments on a few individuals whose abilities might naturally be fitted to receive them. "I have to remark, too, in the third place, that the means, not less than the capacity of improvement, are in the hands of every one. It is not necessary that the student of eloquence should have recourse to the precepts of Aristotle, of Cicero or of Quintilian, or that he should sedulously form himself on the models of a high antiquity Nature, and the example of an able teacher, will point out the species of eloquence which he should endeavour to acquire; and a constant well regulated exercise will prove of more avail for the accomplishment of his purpose, than the most painful study of all thathas been written by Greeks and Romans, on the theory of declamation, and on the. art. of moving the passions. But I forbear at present entering into details relative to the plan of conducting this important. �iviii APPENDIX. branch of professional education, having some intention of expressing my opinions, in regard to its object, and the practical methods by which alone this object can be attained, in a separate publication, on a kindred subject. If I shall be able to follow out my intentions respecting this third division, one object which I shall keep in view is, to give up the method of teaching eloquence, by explaining the abstract systems of rhetoric, as laid down in the work• of Aristotle, Cicero, or Quintilian, which has been so long practiced, and with so little success; nor shall I satisfy myself by extracting brilliant passages or figures from celebrated orations, as has commonly been done. I propose to make a selection of such - orations, ancient or modern, as will best suit my purpose, to make the whole and not detached parts of the oration, the subject of my criticism, to direct the minds of youth to the substance, spirit, intelligence, feeling and association, which it contains, from the beginning to the end; and if I shall be successful in this part of my work, it will not be difficult to conduct the other parts of it in such a manner, as to afford a specimen of teaching by example. This complete analysis leads to simple and rational rules of elocution and delivery, within the reach of every student to understand and to apply. " DEDICATION Francis Scott Key Memorial St. John's College Annapolis, Maryland 1958 Reprinted in 1958 to commemorate the dedication of the Francis Scott Key M emorial � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Speeches, presentations, and other lectures Description An account of the resource Speeches, presentations, and other lectures given at St. John's College. These include convocation addresses delivered in both Annapolis, MD and Santa Fe, NM.<br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Speeches, presentations, and other lectures" href="http://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=15">Items in the Speeches, presentations, and other lectures Collection</a></strong> to <span>view and sort all items in the collection.</span> Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context speechespresentationsotherlectures Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data paper Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 25 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Discourse on Education (reprint) Description An account of the resource A Discourse on Education, delivered in St. Anne's Church, Annapolis, after the Commencement of St. John's College, February 22d, 1827, by Francis S. Key, Esq., alumnus of St. John's College. Reprinted in 1958 to commemorate the dedication of the Francis Scott Key Memorial. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Key, Francis Scott, 1779-1843 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Maryland gazette (Annapolis, Md. : 1727) Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1958 Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.). Alumni Association Education and state--Maryland Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DiscourseOnEducation_Reprint_1958 Alumni https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/afd451c7893332bdc04e9aea0f52dce9.pdf 0e24e1798977f2df65212e7978aac3f2 PDF Text Text ST JOHN'S College ANNAPOLIS• SANTA 2021 ~E COMMENCEMENT EXERCISES Sunday 1 May 16 Two Thousand and Twenty-One Annapolis Maryland �PROGRAM For the Two Hundred Twenty-Ninth Commencement in the Three Hundred Twenty-Fifth Year of the College Prelude Academic Procession The National Anthem Francis Scott Key, Alumnus, Class of 1796 Panayiotis Kanelos Welcome President of the College Announcement of Prizes and Awards President Kanelos Joseph Macfarland, A87 Dean of the College Chester Burke Address to the Graduating Class Tutor Conferring of Undergraduate Degrees Conferring of Graduate Degrees Academic Recession Dean Macfarland Emily H. Brooker Langston Associate Dean for the Graduate Program �l BACHELOR OF ARTS Henry Ince Anderson Savannah Paige Dadds Secret Life of Plants Nashville, Tennessee A Possession for All Time: Self-interest, Morality, and the Athenian Thesis in Thucydides's War of the Peloponnesians and the Athenians Eric Julian Baker New York, New York Engaging with Life While in Isolation: Charles Baudelaire on the Art of Enjoying a Crowd Samuel Joseph Be rrettini Rutherford, New Jersey Homo Daemonicus: Socrates, Alcibiades, and the Love of the Impossible Raz Besaleli Sharon, Vermont Evolution and Calculus: An Exploration of the Genesis of the Complex Analysis in Cauchy's 1852 Memorandum Alysiana Carter Jupiter, Florida The Dialectical Mirror: An Exploration of Artistic and Scientific Mediation in Tarkovsky's Solaris Juan Guillermo Cassanello Garcia Asuncion, Paraguay From Konigsberg to Copenhagen: A Thought on Metaphysics and Quantum Mechanics Nobonita Chowdhury Dhaka, Bangladesh The Legacy of Plutarch's Lawgivers: An Analysis of the Lives of Lycurgus and Solon, and Their Impact on Modern Day Ideas of State, Equality, and Justice Thomas R. Chrisman Maplewood, New Jersey Independence of Intellect Amalie Ballman Christensen New York, New York Johnson, Vermont Springtime: The Dismantling of Romanticism in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales Sophia Cote Virginia Birch Deaver Berea, Kentucky Humor: A Cognitive Prayer to Patterns of Time, Absurd ity, and Human Shame Yanet Teklu Desta Addis Ababa, Ethiopia When We Are in Love, What Do We Fall in Love With? An Examination of Love through Middlemarch and Pride and Prejudice Samuel Dietrich Broad lands, Virginia Things Just Happen: An Examination of Kant in the Everyday Kristina Marie Dover Lake Alfred, Florida With Effort, with Agony, to Mankind: A Study of Trauma in Woolf's Mrs. Dal/away Marshall Elizabeth Drake Columbia, South Carolina What Does Oppressive Government Look Like? A Theory Based in Hobbes's Leviathan Austin Alexander Dumas Ridgely, Maryland Quantum Mechanics Carolina Elizondo Moya Monterrey, Mexico When Can the End Justify the Means? An Exploration of Justice in Niccolo Machiavelli's Political Works, The Prince and the Discourses on Livy Martin Amory Fischer Chevy Chase, Maryland Imagination and Intellect in Spinoza's Ethics Szymon Piotr Galazka Wroclaw, Poland The Revelation of Ivan's Soul in The Brothers Karamazov Illuminated Faith: An I nquiry of the Role of Testimony, and Its Relation to Belief in the Gospel of John Cora Clark Ridgely, Maryland New York, New York The Death of Passion, the Birth of Individuality: Understanding the Self in La Princesse de Cleves Through Passion, Desire, and the Rejection of Both Rachel Cresap Gordon Reisterstown, Maryland In Search of Eternal Stability: Suffering and Unity in Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit Ellie Grace Gott York, Pennsylvania Soren Kierkegaard's Fear and Trembling: The I mportance of Suffering in the Faithful Alexander Peterson Grand On the Inertia of Mankind: A Look into How Societies Develop Brooklyn, New York �Nortaute Elena-Ruta Grintalis Laurel, Maryland The Embryonic Cradle of Spirit: Breeching the Liminality of the Self through Carl G. Jung's Liber Novus Andrew Graham Hill Vancouver, Washington Art and Wretchedness in Les Fleurs du ma/: An Examination of Baudelaire's Horizontal and Vertical Depictions of Sea Voyage Jasmine Alison Holder Beach Lake, Pennsylvania Alvar Yrjo Oskari Huhtanen Espoo, Finland Seeing Things with Clarissa Dalloway Suzhou, People's Republic of China Dao De Jing: The Meaning of Dao and the Notion of Inaction Sera Emily Johnson Middletown, Rhode Island D MO<DPOIYNH: Marriage in James Joyce's Ulysses Chicago, Illinois The Isolation Paradox: An Investigation into Solitude and Social Identity in Rousseau's Reveries of the Solitary Walker Michael August Kraus Memphis, Tennessee Hyderabad, India Special Relativity and the Art of Writing: An Investigation of Einstein's Rhetoric in "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" Fiona Lau Castro Valley, California Nha Trang City, Vietnam The Willing Surrender of Freedom: Justifying the Soul's Descent into Mortality in Plotinus's The Enneads Joshua David Lee An Imitative Approach to Hamlet From Maize to Dust Houston, Texas The Poet of the World: God as the Salvation of Creativity Islamabad, Pakistan Rubab Meraj Woman as an Abused Asset: A Study of Mankind Melrose, Massachusetts Alexis Christina Morrill Optic Research and Wonder: An Exploration of the Part versus Whole Relationship in the Heart Kirabo Pauline Nanyanzi Kyaliwajjala-Namugongo, Uganda The Unfolding of Character in George Eliot's Middlemarch Huntington, West Virginia Uneasy Lies the Head that Wears a Crown: A Study of the Tragedy of Elsa Peter Ordahl Irvington, New York Carving Letters on Little Trees: The Permanence and Impermanence of Home in Virgil's Eclogues Amanda Rose Pauquette Gainesville, Florida The Ethics of Baruch de Spinoza: An Examination of the Belief of God in Spinoza's Ethics, and the Tranquility of Spirit Which Follows from a Rational Understanding of Nature's Laws Jessica Peterson Westwood, Kansas What Must the King Do Now?: An Inquiry of Causation, Motivation, and Divine The Condition of Man and His Labor Bao Le West Hartford, Connecticut Liam James Marshall-Butler King Henry IV The Spleen and the Heart: A Study of the Modern Poet through the Works of Charles Baudelaire and Vladimir Mayakovsky Avi Kumar Varieties of Pride and Prejudice Elizabeth Anne Nilles Grace Phan Jones Beijing, People's Republic of China Kamrin Lynn Martin Dao de Jing, Book I: I Wish to Be a Sage with Feeling Xiaotong Jin Qingqing Le i Houston, Texas Right in Shakespeare's Richard II Amy Elisabeth Porter Shady Side, Maryland Self-revelation and Sincerity: Panache and the Beauty of the Pure Soul in Edmond Rostand's Cyrano de Bergerac Mary Elizabeth Quinn Louisville, Kentucky Death Doesn't Bite: An Examination of the Body and Soul in Plato's Phaedo �Wilson Trueman Redfield Vineyard Haven, Massachusetts The Riddle of History Michael Riggins Mineral Wells, Texas Inconstancy's Constant Habit: Experiential Christianity in John Donne's Holy Sonnets Arpan Sapkota Kathmandu, Nepal Los Angeles, California Fairfax Station, Virginia Ph iladelphia, Pennsylvania Exploitation of the Worker in Marx's Capital Lkhagvabadrakh Sereeter Murun, Mongolia On Self-Consciousness in Lordship and Bondage, The Phenomenology of Spirit as translated by A.V. Miller Bryan David Shaw Azle, Texas Houston, Texas The Wanderer: A Hegelian Analysis of "White Nights" Eli Samuel Sneider Palo Alto, California Thucydides: Passion at the Root of the Peloponnesian War Jaeri Suh Seoul, South Korea Life on Earth Hope Allegra Taglich New York, New York A Quiet Revolution: On Chastity and Self-Ownership in The Princess of Cleves Ciel Torres Being Also Beholding: Alternatively, A Situation in Five Scenes Burke, Virginia Matthew Alexander Tyska Tie Siding, Wyoming Luisa Anne Wayman Annapolis, Maryland Erik West Mountain River, Australia The Baffled King Composing Hallelujah, or, Where David Was Forgiven Where Saul Was Not, and What This Says about the Nature of God Ives Williams Annapolis, Maryland Ragged Figures: A Journey Through Flannery O'Connor's Wise Blood and the Path to Salvation Shane C. Williams In Defense of Universal Uniformity Anna Simmons Liam Ethan Twomey On the Conflation of Morality and Virtue in the Summa Theologica and its Consequences for the Secularization of Popular Morality Fear and Rebellion Nicholas Joseph Scott One for All, All for One: An Investigation of Community in Hobbes's Leviathan and Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah Lucretian Imagery and Thought in Virgil's Aeneid Just a Spoonful of Sugar Helps the Medicine Go Down: The Wormwood and Honey of Baudelaire's Poems Adam Joseph Schulman Izmir, Turkey Inspiration, Imitation, and Interpretation: Three Accounts of Art Machiavellian Prince: A Product of Human Nature Petra Schaaf-Grisham Ece Nur Tuglu Los Angeles, California Lubbock, Texas Between the Angel and the Deep Blue Sea: Analyzing the Nature of Captain Vere in Herman Melville's Billy Budd Luke Chapin Wilson Peterborough, New Hampshire I am Now Alone on Earth: How Our Identity is Shaped by Solitude Rediet Worku Addis Ababa, Ethiopia The Memories of Discernment: Andrey's Moment of Freedom Maxwell Clark Wright Wyncote, Pennsylvania Soft Despotism and the Most Existential Fear of Democracy Xi Xue The Genesis of 1 Chongqing, People's Republic of China �MASTER OF ARTS IN LIBERAL ARTS Carly Nicole Berndtt Justin Edward Bradyt Lisa Christian Marley Annika Crank Kelly Duvall Custer Bexley, Ohio Baltimore, Maryland Washington , District of Columbia Annapolis, Maryland Washington, District of Columbia Leith Genghis Daghistanit Fai rfax, Virginia William Winston Elliott, III§ Houston, Texas NehaGaddam Annapolis, Maryland Alexander Michael Habighorst Picayune, Mississippi Melvin Aaron Hanson William John Harvardt Mustafa Kamalt Dimple Kault Akaylaquriveria Tierra Lewis Joseph Elias Malfitanot Manhattan, Illinois Elverson, Pennsylvania Makkah, Saudi Arabia Ghaziabad, India Franklin, Louisiana Virginia Beach, Virginia Albert Joseph Matricciani Jr. Baltimore, Maryland Michael Gideon Marta Kansas City, Missouri Colin James Morrisseyt Newark, New Jersey Ian August Mosleyt Clifford Geroge Mumm Nichella Floraine Nalt Hayley River Smitht Hollister, Missouri Sperryville, Virginia Colorado Spri ngs, Colorado Annapolis, Maryland John Townsend Stemmlet Cheverly, Maryland Jonathan David Stewartt Richmond , Virginia Paul Christopher Tsavoussist Courtney Michele White † Degree conferred January 27, 2021 § Degree to be conferred May 22, 2021 in Santa Fe Dunedin, Florida Los Angeles, Californ ia �To the Graduate Institute student who has written a distinguished tutorial essay in the 2020-2021 academic year. Offered in Memory of Laurence Berns PRIZES AND AWARDS How Do We Learn? Is Anything Teachable? To the member of the Senior Class who has written the best senior essay. Offered in memory of Susan Irene Roberts, of the Class of 1966 Andrew Graney The Isolation Paradox: An Investigation into Solitude and Social Identity in Rousseau's Reveries of the Solitary Walker Grace Phan Jones To a member of the Senior Class, for excellence in speaking. Offered in memory of Senator Millard E. Tydings of Maryland Alvar Yrjo Oskari Huhtanen To the student who submits the best English version of a Greek text. Offered in memory of John S. Kieffer, President Emeritus To the member of the Junior Class who has written the best annual essay. Offered by Mrs. Leslie Clark Stevens in memory of her daughter-in-law, Stephen Carino Kathryn Mylroie Stevens Honorable Mention How to Snuff Out a Candle: An Examination of 'Light' and Authentic Companionship in Middlemarch Sofia Martin Half Abashed: A Study of Sex Before-and After-the Fall of Man Ivan Zembrusky To the student who submits the best English version of a French poem. Offered by the Board of Visitors and Governors Jessie Tagliani Olivia Pittard Honorable Mention To the member of the Sophomore Class who has written the best annual essay. Offered under the will of the late Judge Walter I. Dawkins, of the Class of 1880 Cato in Purgatory Ezra Melchor Honorable Mention Divina Musicale: The Music Between Heaven and Earth Ruby Miller To the member of the Freshman Class who has written the best annual essay. Not Awarded To the Graduate Institute student who has written a distinguished preceptorial essay in the year 2020. Offered by the Alumni Association Liam Twomey To the student who submits a fine original English poem. Offered by Dr. George Austin in memory of his brother, Henry "A Ballade of Paradise Lost, or Lines 1-6 Reimagined" Brandon Garcia Honorable Mention "Mercury" Allayah Mason-Koehler To the student who submits a fine original musical composition. Offered in memory of Mary Joy Belknap, President of the Caritas Society 1987-1991 " ~tiiiJ" ("North River") Xi Xue An Essay on Nietzsche's Thus Spoke Zarathustra Anthony Mette To the student who submits a fine essay on a piece of music. Offered in memory of Mary Joy Belknap, President of the Caritas Society 1987-1991 An Evolution of Tension: How Bach Portrays The Emotional and Theological Aspects of Grieving Sofia Martin J �To the student who submits the most elegant solution of a synthetic problem. Offered by the Class of 1986 in memory of Bryce Jacobsen, of the Class of 1942, Tutor and Director of Athletics Emeritus Not Awarded To the student who submits the most elegant solution of an analytical problem. Offered in memory of James R. Mcclintock, of the Class of 1965 Liam Ethan Twomey To the student who carries out a fine laboratory project. Offered in memory of Curtis Wilson by the Class of 1963 Not Awarded Honorable Mention Stephan Mason To the members of the Senior class, through participation, leadership, and sportsmanship, have contributed most to the SJC athletic program, a special blazer. Sera Emily Johnson Shane C. Williams To the member of the Senior Class who has contributed outstanding service to the Greater Annapolis Community. Offered by the Caritas Society of St. John's College Rachel Cresap Gordon To the member of the Senior Class who has demonstrated the greatest care for and service to youth who reside in the City of Annapolis. Offered by the friends and family of Marvin B. Cooper, of the Class of 196 9 Amy Elisabeth Porter To the member of the Senior Class who submits the best work of visual art to the Community Art Exhibition, the Charles Vernon Moran Prize. Tea Set with Copper Wire and Found Wood, ceramic Sophia Cote To the Senior who has demonstrated excellence in the arts, literature, or sciences, the Walter S. Baird prize. Tea Set with Copper Wire and Found Wood, ceramic Sophia Cote �CONGRATULATIONS, ALUMNI. Stay in touch. Get involved. Give back. sjc.edu 410-626-2531 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Commencement Programs and Addresses Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Description An account of the resource Addresses given at commencement and programs of events related to, and including, the annual commencement ceremonies at St. John's College. Includes both the undergraduate and Graduate Institute commencements. <br /><br />The College Archives holds programs and/or addresses for the following years:<br /> <ul> <li>1796</li> <li>1835-1836</li> <li>1842</li> <li>1852</li> <li>1856-1857</li> <li>1870</li> <li>1878</li> <li>1880</li> <li>1890</li> <li>1893</li> <li>1895</li> <li>1897</li> <li>1907</li> <li>1910-1918</li> <li>1920-1924</li> <li>1928-1929</li> <li>1932</li> <li>1936-1937</li> <li>1939-1945</li> <li>1947-present  </li> </ul> Click on <strong><a title="Commencement Programs and Addresses" href="http://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=18&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the Commencement Programs and Addresses Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context commencementprograms Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data paper Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 9 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Commencement Program, 2021 Description An account of the resource Program for the two hundred twenty-ninth commencement in the three hundred twenty-fifth year of the college. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2021-05-16 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College owns the rights to this publication. Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource Commencement (St. John's College, Annapolis, MD) Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context CommencementExcercises2021 Commencement https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/3bfe6a975cf006870867cbb153ce0105.pdf 996fd2146b85a207f9ba708f1cba3aff PDF Text Text the EPOCH VOLUMEX ISSUE 1 JOURNAL Summer2016 - - - - - - - - - Democracy is Coming to the USA by Noah Burns In Their Own Words by SawyerNeale Living with Keynes by Ryan Dau plus The Politic of Religion & Battle for the Senate 2016 On Democracy �the EPOCH JOURNAL SUMMER 2016 VOLUME X, ISSUE I Editor's Letter EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Sawyer Neale LAYOUT Stuart Lombard Sawyer Neale We are in a unique place in the history of our democracy. As a nation, we have seen the BUSINESS DIRECTOR Ivan Syritsyn EDITORIAL BOARD Sawyer Neale Ivan Syristyn Stuart Lombard Matthew Manotti Aidan Shaw COLUMNISTS Morgan Anastasi Noah Burns Stuart Lombard Matthew Manotti Cyrus Schiller CONTRIBUTORS Henry Bartholomew Ryan Dau Katelin Safford Ivan Syritsyn Grace Villmow © 2016, The Epoch Journal disclaimer The Epoch Journal IS PRODUCED AND DISTRIBUTED IN ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND. OPINIONS EXPRESSED IN ARTICLES OR ILLUSTRATIONS ARE NOT NECESSARILY THOSE OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD OR ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE. question. ■ mailing address -Sawyer Neale, Editor-In-Chief ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE 60 COLLEGE A VE. ANNAPOLIS, MD 21404 submissions ARE YOU INTERESTED IN WRITING FOR THE EPOCH JOURNAL? WE ARE CURRENTLY LOOKING FOR EDITORS, COLUMNISTS, AND GENERAL SUBMISSIONS - birth of the internet and social media and have witness the rise and fall of movements born out of digital activism ranging from President Obama's 2008 campaign and Occupy Wall Street to the Black Lives Matter movement. In terms of current politics, the internet and social media has led to a society in which a major party nominee openly advocates against our most basic freedoms, be it press, religion, or due process, and third parties appear to be on the verge of a national resurgence. Needless to say, it's interesting viewing. However, at The Epoch Journal, we don't believe in just watching. In this issue of The Epoch, which commemorates our 10th anniversary, we put that philosophy to the test, and set out to explore the current state of our democracy. In his column Democracy is Coming to The USA, Noah Bums (A'18) discusses the state of profound inequality among Americans, and the movements necessary to solve it. Our Business Director, Ivan Syritsyn (A'19) in The Sinews ofDemocracy explores the effects of large campaign contributions and the increased distancing between elected officials and constituents. Columnist Matthew Manotti talks in The Politic of Religion about the conflicts that arise when religion faces liberal democracy. In Battle for the Senate 2016, Henry Bartholomew (A' 19) and Cyrus Schiller (A' 19) take a more contemporary look at democracy, providing commentary on every single 2016 senate race, including predictions for whether seats will flip, or stay in control of whichever party current occupies them. We also have some pieces from up-and-coming freshmen in this issue, such as Ryan Dau's (A'20) exploration, Living with Keynes, which shows the immense influence which John Maynard Keynes has had on macroeconomics, or Grace Villmow (A'20), who attempts to dispel many myths about genetically modified organisms in Your Right to Know. In my article In Their Own Words, I attempt to end this 10th anniversary issue of The Epoch with a meditation on the role of the media in a democracy by asking nationally-renowned (and occasionally reviled) journalists and politicians that very FOR MORE INFORMATION, CONTACT SAWYER NEALE AT Addendum:As a result of budget constraints from the St. John's College Delegate Council, we will be switching to a subscription-based system of distribution for future issues. If you're interested in receiving new issues of The Epoch Journal, send an email to smneale@sjc.edu with the subject "Epoch Subscription" and your full name in the body of the email, and future issues will be delivered straight to your campus mailbox. SMNEALE@SJC.EDU. 2 THE EPOCH JOURNAL SUMMER 2016 3 �COLUMNS FEATURES Democracy is Coming to The USA by Noah Burns (A'18) Living with Keynes by Ryan Dau (A'20) The Ultimate Battle for Market Freedom Battle for the Senate 2016 17. The Digital Election by Morgan Anastasi (A'18) In Defense of Tumblr Feminism by Katelin Safford (A'18) 35. 19. The Politic of Religion by Matthew Manotti (A'18) The Sinews of Democracy by Ivan Syritsyn (A'19) 39. 21. The Collapsing Consensus by Cyrus Schiller (A'19) Your Right to Know by Grace Villtnow (A'20) 41. In Their Own Words by Sawyer Neale (A'18) 46. 6. 14. by Stuart Lombard (A'19) 4 THE EPOCH JOURNAL 25. 28. by Henry Bartholomew (A'19) and Cyrus Schiller (A'19) SUMMER 2016 5 �POLITICAL ETHICS Democracy is Coming to the USA Linguistic And Political Absurdities, and What to Do About Them BY NOAH BURNS (A'18) It is currently a widely held opinion in main- American democracy is like fearing the exstream American politics that Donald Trump tinction of the unicorn. It makes no sense to is a threat to American democracy. A number fear the demise of something that does not of reasons have been given. In an op-ed in exist and has never existed. The problem is, I believe, one of lanthe Washington Post in March, former treaguage. Words, once they enter the boxing sury secretary Lawrence Summers stated that Trump threatened American democracy be- ring of political discourse, are repeatedly cause "he is running as modem day man on punched in the face, to the point where they only emerge bloodied and a horseback---demagogically offering the power of his percontorted. This creates two "It makes no sense sonality as a magic solution definitions for many words, to fear the demise of a common sense one and a to all problems- and making something that does clear that he is prepared to political one. Two sides of run roughshod over anything an argument often then pronot exist and has ceed to make their arguments or anyone who stands in his never existed. " way." Three months later in based on different definitions. Bloomberg, Jonathan BernA good example is the debate stein argued that the threat posed by Trump over the political movement Black Lives to American democracy is that "his only con- Matter. Black Lives Matter (which is not resistent promise is 'winning' -- that he will re- ally a centralized organization) has been acverse a perceived string of losses endured by cused of being anti-law enforcement because the the U.S." In other words, he makes few of its protests against police brutality and real policy proposals, and therefore is not the shooting of innocent, generally unarmed promising to represent anyone in a substan- black men by police. Now, as far as I know, tive manner. Trump and some of his support- assault and murder are against the law. If the ers have also suggested that the election will words "law" and "enforcement" mean what be fraudulent, spreading fears through the I (probably naively) think they mean, then, pundit class that the lack of faith in the pro- when a crime is committed, the person who cess will threaten American democracy. causes the law concerning that crime to be My immediate response to this con- followed should be considered the enforcer cern for the future of American democracy of that law. So far, that is all clear, and I think, is bewilderment. Fearing the extinction of uncontroversial: assault and murder are 6 THE EPOCH JOURNAL against the law, and the person who enforces enforce. If you define law enforcement this the law should be called "law enforcement." way, it suddenly makes sense how Black When there is a police shooting of an innoLives Matter could be considered anti-law cent man where no charges are filed, and the enforcement. investigation is minimal and/or prejudiced, This is true of the word democracy Black Lives Matter organizes and carries out as well. Basically, common sensically, and protests to demand that the shooter be held etymologically, a democracy is a political accountable to the law. Now, according to our system in which the people, have power. reasonable, normal definitions above, when This is my understanding of democracy as Black Lives Matter demands that the law be well. With this definition of democracy, the followed, and participates in direct actions idea that the United States is a democracy designed to cause it to be followed, Black appears even more absurd than the idea Lives Matter is law enforcement. Therefore, that Black Lives Matter is anti-law enwhen Black Lives Matter participates in the forcement. A 2014 study by Martin Gil ens actions I described, unless Black Lives Matof Princeton University and Benjamin ter is opposed to Black Lives Page of Northwestern Univer"... the idea that the Matter, Black Lives Matter sity, entitled Testing Theories cannot possibly be "anti-law United States is a of American Politics: Elites, enforcement". Conversely, democracy appears Interest Groups, and Average when police commit assaults Citizens, used public opinion even more absurd and murders, or any other survey data from 1982-2002 to than the idea that violation of the rights of the attempt to answer the question Black Lives Matter people whose rights they are of who really has the greatest is anti-law enforcesupposed to be protecting, causal influence on American they are not law enforcement, ment." federal policy. Gilens studied unless we reject Aristotle's 1,779 issues for which there principle of non-contradiction was polling data that included in the Metaphysics, and assert that one can income demographic information and for both violate and enforce the law at the same which a significant policy alteration or time. complete maintenance of the status quo This example illustrates the disconwas the ultimate result. Gilens and Page nect between common meanings of words, summarized theirresults, saying, "The cenand special, technical meanings that arise tral point that emerges from our research is once those words enter the political sphere. that economic elites and organized groups The reason that Black Lives matter can be representing business interests have subconsidered anti-law enforcement is that the stantial independent impacts on U.S. govjob of the police is not really to enforce the ernment policy, while mass-based interest law. The police are an instrument of power, groups and average citizens have little or a means to maintain social, economic, and no independent influence." Although poppolitical hierarchies of privilege and influular opinion correlates with public policy ence. As an agent of power, they are to be roughly two thirds of the time, they argue respected like the power they represent. To that it would be wrong to claim a causal defy the police is to defy the social order they relationship based on that data. Average SUMMER 2016 7 �voters and mass-based political groups get what they want only when they want what economic elites want. When the opinions of elites and average or poor citizens diverge, the elites almost always prevail: "When the preferences of economic elites and the stands of organized interest groups are controlled for, the preferences of the average American appear to have only a minuscule, near-zero, statistically non-significant impact upon public policy.... To be sure, this does not mean that ordinary citizens always lose out; they fairly often get the policies they favor, but only because those policies happen also to be preferred by the economically-elite citizens who wield the actual influence." Furthermore, elites expend significant resources and effort to making the population agree with them or divert them from politics altogether (for a treatment of this better than any I could give, see Noam Chomsky and Edward Her- man, Manufacturing Consent). Analyses with less scope have found similar results. For example, a Washington Post article from June 12th 2015 compared Bernie Sanders' policy positions to public opinion polls, and found that for issues for which there is reliable ' polling data, a majority of American agreed with Sanders. Nonetheless, Sanders' positions were considered so radical that one of the principle arguments against him was that he would never get anything done. In other words, if you propose doing what the general population wants, you're a radical extremist and will go nowhere. Just like the case of Black Lives Matter and law enforcement, the discussion of the Trump-caused expiry of democracy appears to be an absurdity that flies in the face of common understanding and elementary logic. But as in that case, the absurdity can be obviated by recognizing that some of the participants are operating under a different definition of the word involved. In addition to the common sense, etymological definition, there is also an alternative, technical meaning of the word democracy. In this sense, a democracy is a political system run allegedly in the collective interest, but run not by the people but by economic and social elites. In this system, the general population, or the "bewildered herd" as Walter Lippman described them in his book Public Opinion, is there to ratify the decisions of the natural aristocracy, the (formerly exclusively, now merely predominantly) men of superior understanding. The idea of such a natural aristocracy has a long history, and in American history it goes back to the beginning. To the so-called Founders, more than a modicum of democracy was dangerous, and so the United States government was set up specifically to prevent it going beyond certain limits. In his notes on the secret debates of the Federal Convention of 1787, Robert Yates quotes James Madison giving a detailed description of his intentions for the Senate: " T he man who is possessed of wealth, who lolls on his sofa, or rolls in his carriage, cannot judge of the wants or feelings of the day laborer. The government we mean to erect is intended to last for ages. The landed interest, at present, is prevalent; but in process of time, when we approximate to the states and kingdoms ofEurope; when the number of landholders shall be comparatively small, through the various means of trade and manufactures, will not the landed interest be overbalanced in fu ture elections, and unless wisely provided against, what will become ofyour government? In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of 8 THE EPOCH JOURNAL people, the property of the landed proprietors would be insecure. An agrarian law would soon take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation. Landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority. The senate, therefore, ought to be this body; and to answer these purposes, they ought to have permanency and stability. Various have been the propositions; but my opinion is, the longer they continue in office, the better will these views be answered. " The electoral college and the restriction of the franchise to white, male, property owners were also powerful ways to protect the wealthy and powerful from the demands of the general population for equality. The result of Gilens and Page's study, that when the general population and the economic elite disagree over policy the elite win, is not an aberration from or degeneration the American political system. It is the system working as it was intended to, defending wealth and privilege from the popular will. The important question is, which kind of democracy is preferable? Madison's argument was recently recapitulated quite clearly by Andrew Sullivan, in the title of an article on the dangers that Donald Trump poses to American democracy (in the technical sense): "Democracies End When They Become Too Democratic" (New York Times Magazine, May 1st 2016). In other words, when "the barriers to the popular will" are gone, the result is that the bewildered herd will mess everything up. He also warns of the democraSUMMER 2016 9 �tization of the media through the emergence problems attributable to elite policy. Due to and large scale dissemination of alternative time and space, I can only give a perfunctory sources of information. "Yes, occasional ra- summary of these problems, but I'm sure you tional points still fly back and forth, but there know many of them already. The gist of it is are dramatically fewer elite arbiters to estab- that the elite economic-political doctrine of lish which of those points is actually true or choice for the last thirty five years, neolibvalid or relevant. We have lost authoritative eralism, has been smashing success - for the sources for even a common set of facts. And elite. Economic inequality has been increaswithout such common empirical ground, the ing for the last thirty years, and continues to emotional component of politics becomes increase even during the administration of inflamed and reason retreats even further." such a radical socialist as Barack Obama. AcSullivan is to be directed to the track-record cording to a September 10th, 2013 article in Pravda The Wall Street Jourthe newspaper that published nal, the economic recovery his article under their slogan "... the 62 richest from the 2008 : financial crash of "All the news that's fit to has not stopped the increase in people in the world print" (is that really any less economic inequality. It cites a own as much wealth deranged a claim than the as half of the world's study by UC Berkeley, which name of the Soviet propaganit summarizes as finding that, da institution, "Truth"?). Acpopulation. .. " "All told, average inflationcording to Sullivan it is better adjusted income per family that we share common lies climbed 6% between 2009 and than argue over what is true. These noble lies allow for government by 2012, the first years of the economic recovthe responsible set of men, so that they may ery. During that period, the top 1% saw their make good policy decisions that will lead to incomes climb 31.4% - or, 95% of the total gain - while the bottom 99% saw growth high standards of living and safety. In order to respond to this argument, of 0.4%." A recent Oxfam study found that we can conduct a very simple test. Does the this phenomenon is not limited to the United set of responsible men, or the natural aristoc- States, unsurprising in the era of globalizaracy, or the social and economic elite, what- tion. According to Oxfam, the 62 richest peoever you want to call them, accomplish what ple in the world own as much wealth as half it has allegedly empowered itself in order to of the world's population, a decrease from 80 do? If economic elites were empowered by the previous year, and 388 in 2010. And what the design of the United States' political insti- are the wealthy doing with all this money? tutions, and they have maintained that power There is a crisis of investment. Banks are still over the course of its history and up to the not lending for productive purposes, even present, then, like a candidate for powerful after they have become more profitable than office, they have a record. The results of that they were before the financial crisis thanks to record can be seen by simply looking around. the use of taxpayer money by the government Your perception of the state of affairs might to bail them out. From trade agreements (like depend upon your socio-economic status, but the protectionist TPP) to so-called austerity any even mildly objective look at the state of (just how austere is it to force Greece to take the United States shows significant problems, more of your money that you know it won't I 10 THEEPOCHJOURNAL I be able to pay back to you?) to privatization of public goods and tax cuts and loopholes for the wealthy, the neoliberal economy is designed to transfer the wealth and income of the poor and working class to the economic elite. And the political system is designed to keep the poor and working class from taking it back. Meanwhile, in the United States, that growing part of the population that lives in poverty suffers decreasing life-expectancy, hunger, homelessness, cuts in education (which was already designed to indoctrinate them), and the constant to work long hours at difficult or degrading jobs to survive. Throw in the foreign policy decisions of elites over the same period, from 1-3 million dead in Iraq and a collapsing region, to and endless and expanding war on terror (if the methods of war on terror were going to work, shouldn't the problem be getting better, not worse, after 15 years of using them?), and so-called mob rule is looking pretty good. But no such thing as "mob rule" is required to ameliorate some of these problems. Since the kind of "democracy" that empowers elites and either represses, anesthatizes or indoctrinates everybody else has been a massive failure, we plebs might try expanding the kind of democracy that empowers the people generally. There are some very simple ways in which this could be done. They have very little to do with elections. Achieving real democracy will not mean changing who is in power, which is simply exchanging one elite for another. If there were a right person to be in power, we wouldn't need democracy. It isn't about "who has the power?", who is in a position of centralized power, but about power simply. The whole point of democracy is that people should have power over their own lives, and that they should share power over their collective lives. Achieving this kind of democracy is very simple in theory: just do it. We could start organizing ourselves into small democratic societies today. This is more difficult in practice, because of what is required of us to sacrifice in order to do this. But there are some places where it might be easier to start than others. One strategy to move our society in a democratic direction is a protest movement. The goal of a protest movement is not to establish an anarchist society, like the pure democracy that I just hinted at, but to positively impact the Overton window (the range of acceptable policies) and to turn passive bystanders into political actors. A protest movement, borrowing from a formulation by Milton Friedman (who would probably be horrified to see his name here, which is why I am invoking it), it isn't about getting the right people in power (there are no right people, remember?), but about making it impossible for the wrong people not to do less wrong things. The right thing, however, would be to dissolve the institutions of centralized power themselves. That's where the second strategy comes in. Instead of trying to make its tyranny less brutal through protest, the second strategy, direct action, asserts immediately the right and responsibility of people to govern their own affairs. It is the practice of a truly democratic, anarchist society. In an article that I strongly recommend reading called "Election Madness," the late historian Howard Zinn wrote about the history of direct action, and how it is more important than elections. " [T]he mortgage foreclosures that are driving millions from their homes-they should remind us of a similar situation after the Revolutionary War, when small farmers, many of them war veterans (like so many of our homeless SUMMER 2016 11 �today), could not afford to pay their taxes and were threatened with the loss of the land, their homes. They gathered by the thousands around courthouses and refused to allow the auctions to take place. The evictions today of people who cannot pay their rents should remind us of what people did in the Thirties when they organized and put the belongings of the evicted families back in their apartments, in defiance of the authorities. " In other words, if they evict your neighbor because they lost their job, don't wring your hands at the system at large or try to make the government that let's people get thrown out on the street less tyrannical: get the community you live in to come together and put their stuff back back in their home, and help to keep them there. There is a movement doing this in East Harlem, started by Latina immigrant women, called Movimiento Por Justicia en El Barrio. The anarchist inspired movement has fought both political battles of city-wide import through protest, such as zoning reform and gentrification, and small battles of simply keeping people in their homes and providing them with dignity. More than this, however, it has become a free 12 THE EPOCH JOURNAL community itself. Josefina, a member of the movement, says in a YouTube video, "I like to be like a bird: to be free, to fly! ... Without anybody managing me." If a corporation wants to build a pipeline that the community doesn't want, we can follow the example of Native Americans in North Dakota right now, and prevent them from building it. If the government wants to send us to war against our will, we must refuse to go and help others to refuse, Finally, since economic elites control the policies of the government, it follows that the center of power in our society is not political but economic. Furthermore, most adult Americans spend most of their time within the economic sphere, at work. But the economic sphere is even more lacking in democracy than the political sphere: it has none at all. Corporations are command economies based on strict hierarchies, and are mostly not accountable to the public. Workers, say General Motors factory workers (if there are any of them left), have no control over the content of their work. They cannot decide to start making more fuel efficient cars, even if they generally agree that this is a necessary step towards averting climate catastrophe. In other words, the people who are living and working in a community don't have control such as B corporations, or stakeholder corover what is produced in and for that com- porations, worker-owned cooperatives, community, and the conditions in which they pro- munity owned grocers, and anthroposophical duce it. The minimal exceptions are thanks banks. to organized labor, a "democratic distemper" Popular movements like Black Lives within the economic sphere. The simple solu- Matter, Movimiento Por Justicia en El Barrio, tion to this problem, that people spend most the gay rights movement, the environmenof their time within authoritarian structures tal movement, and the anti-war movement beyond their control, taking orders, is to de- are small democracies, in the shared-power mocratize the work-place. The people who sense. If we want self-determination, it is create the wealth and do the self-evident that we must acwork should take control over complish it by living freely. As "If we want selfthat work and the wealth that philosopher and writer Albert determination, it is they produce with it. I'm not Camus put it, "The only way self-evident that we talking about electing managto deal with an unfree world is must accomplish it by ers. Workers should be makto become so absolutely free living freely. " ing communal decisions about that your very existence is an what they produce based on act of rebellion." Only then their common values and needs, and organiz- will the absurdity of our political, social, and ing a way to carry out the production accord- economic life abate, and free individuals will ingly. To the aristocrats, who think this would be able to control their own fates. Only then destroy profitability and that workers could will we have democracy in any sense worth never be competent enough to run their own of the name, and of us. ■ affairs, I reply just as I did to their argument about government: look at facts. General Motors was run according to the elite domination model, and it was run into the ground, contributing to climate change and environmental destruction and decimating the lives of its employees (among other infractions, like knowingly failing to report serious malfunctions that led to the deaths of dozens of customers). Is there any reason to think that workers will do worse than that? If you are still not convinced, look into the hidden history of the American workers' movements of the nineteenth century, when the propositions I just expounded were considered selfevident to working people. It did not come to pass because of violence on the part of the government for industrialists, not because of any lack of competency. You might also want to research cooperative enterprises of today, SUMMER 2016 13 �LAW & TECHNOLOGY The Ultimate Battle for Market Freedom Apple Inc. & Samsung Electronics Co. BY STUART LOMBARD (A'19) It isno secret that Steve Jobs hated having been a manufacturing defect. Even today, the competition. And the launch of the original fact that the microphone, headphone jack, iPhone in 2007 was no different. With its and micro-USB connector do not line up in release, he intended to capture the growing perfect symmetry on the bottom of Samsung smartphone market by releasing a product smartphones upsets a few device reviewers. that no one had ever seen before. But com- In comparison, these things line up perfectly petition is always lurking and Apple would on the bottom of Apple smartphones. have no weapon to eliminate them with, but And it was not just the smartphone itin fact they did have a suitable self that Apple was accusing, weapon, and one that had cost "... they claimed that but the packaging. The way already cost them hundreds of Samsung was inten- Samsung chose to put their millions of dollars: Patents. phone in a box was supposApple was no stranger tionally trying to sell edly in violation of an Apple to the patent war games when a product that tricked patent that covered the way they filed a lawsuit against customers into think- the iPhone was to be packSamsung Electronics Co. in ing they were buying aged. While all these things April of 2011, having recent- an Apple product... " may seem just slightly ridiculy lost a long battle over the lous, Apple's claim was that iPod. Among the patents that all these components, from Apple was claiming Samsung infringed upon the packaging, to the construction, to the were the rounded comers of the phone itself, User Interface all came together to create the the fact that the phone had a glass screen that iPhone, and in that a product that was discovered the face of the device, equal black tinctly Apple. Essentially, they claimed that borders on each side of the display, and the Samsung was intentionally trying to sell a grid of icons on the home screen. I find these product that tricked customers into thinking to be ridiculous grounds for suing, since they were buying an Apple product, and not a uniformity has always created physically product created by Samsung. appealing products. Imagine for a moment Ever since the beginning of time peohaving a smartphone that had 1 cm of bezel ple have been mimicking each other, and it is space on the right side of the display but 2 cm the essence of humanity that in order to adon the left side. Such an occurrence would vance we must look at each other's creations make for a product that looked like there had and improve on them. We have many compa14 THE EPOCH JOURNAL nies that make ballpoint pens, and while they all serve the same function, there just happen to be better pens that are superior to others. And while all ballpoint pens owe their existence to the same mechanism that allows for ink to cling to a tiny ball that in tum transfers that ink to the paper, the writing experience is something that is extremely personal and can be studied. Therefore, many companies are able to compete with each other to create ballpoint pens that make people feel good when they write with them. Many pens are inexpensive and some can cost hundreds of dollars. Companies like Parker aim to create the perfect writing experience with tried and tested weighting that make their pens distinct. If I see a pen with a clip that resembles an arrow, I will assume that the pen was made by Parker. A Parker pen is something that I expect to be of exemplary quality. The Parker experience would not be possible if the people who had invented the ballpoint, rollerball, or fountain systems had aggressively fought companies who wished to use the technology to create their own distinct writing experience. Apple, like most companies, will fight to retain their intellectual property. The easiest way to do this is by filing patents. However, when Apple filed U.S. Registration No. 3,470,983 with the intent of protecting the iPhone's design, they were ignoring the fact that companies like Samsung Electronics had already released products fitting that description years prior to the release of the original iPhone in 2007. Unfortunately for Samsung, they have not done very well in US courts where I find there to be a clear bias in favour of Apple. The British courts actually sided with Samsung when Apple brought a lawsuit over the design of the original Galaxy Tab 10.1. The law is a murky place and despite Samsung's countersuits concerning the design of Apple's products, they are still fighting to decrease the damages that the courts have decided Samsung owes Apple. The problem here is not that Apple PHOTO BY WIKIMEDIA SUMMER 2016 15 �is wrongly accusing Samsung of design in- glass, and some colourful icons displayed on fringement, because for all intents and pur- the screen, but it is iPhone, never the iPhone, poses, they did. The problem is that com- but simply: iPhone. A product that they want panies like Samsung were already building people to feel is more than just a phone. The problem with all this is that by phones that fit the description of the patent before it was filed, and well before the release patenting even the most minute details and marketing every minor feaof the original iPhone. Durture as a game changer, they ing the earlier court proceed" ... the market presare stifling innovation. By inings, it was discovered that sure on companies to tentionally trying to eliminate Apple had indeed taken a lot good products create competition, they are also of inspiration for their design cursing themselves. Because from Sony, even going so far ends with healthy as to have an employee create competition that ben- we can argue all day long about which company stole professional CAD renderings efits the consumer. " X feature from the other, but of Sony-like phones. Samthe fact is that when people sung brought this up and also brought up the CAD drawings for phones borrow ideas from each other, the features they were making in 2006. And I think that tend to improve. And the market pressure on if Samsung or Sony had filed patents relating companies to create good products ends with to their design choices, then this story would healthy competition that benefits the conhave been different, as it would have been sumer. Apple and Samsung are good for each other in this respect. Apple has not been inthem suing Apple. But should they have? I would say no, they should not have, novating lately, and so many consumers have and I do not think Apple should have either. switched over to Samsung who are deliverBut if there is a sole factor that has made Ap- ing powerful, feature-rich phones with a stylple so unbelievably successful, it is design; ish design. Apple must recognise this as their design and marketing. It has been a long time profits have fallen, and they will undoubtedly since Apple has put forth any real innovation. be trying to innovate and implement the next Nowadays, iPhones are just borrowing from big feature that will drive the market forward. features that have already existed in other This is why the precedent set now smartphones. But by marketing these features is so very important. If the judiciary allows effectively, they tend to take the credit. Apple companies to become patent trolls, then does deserve a lot of praise though for tak- the market will slow down because there is ing features and polishing them to make them a blockade in the flow of ideas. Here at St. slightly duller but easier to use. They create John's College we are encouraged to collaboproducts that seem like so much more than rate and share ideas for the betterment of the just phone or just a computer: they bring a entire polity and also the outside world. Intelwhole host of technology into a package that lectual property is important, but if the invenmakes people feel good, and like they do not tor of the ballpoint pen system had restricted have to learn all the technology. Apple still their invention to one company, it would be remains the king of ease-of-use. This is what a very dull world. When companies are alApple is trying so hard to protect: it is not just lowed to compete, the consumer wins. ■ a phone with rounded comers, a display of 16 THE EPOCH JOURNA L POLITICS The Digital Election How Technology is Changing our Democracy BY MORGAN ANASTASI (A'18) The impact of technology on the political pro- right ideologies. Brexit was a Twitter hashtag becess has never been greater. The rapid advance- fore it became a political reality while being opment in social networking technology has brought posed by most members of the traditional media. with it many effects and side-effects. This has Anyone can post a video on YouTube and potenbeen a paradigm shift for how democracy is done. tially reach an audience of millions. Every tiny It is clear that any account of the upcoming elec- piece of campaign errata and minutiae is instantly tion would be incomplete and shallow if it did not disseminated across what might be described as a include a thorough account of the deep systemic flourishing ecosystem of armchair commentators, changes wrought by the rise of digital communi- analysts and comedians. This rag-tag commentarcations. iat is, as any random cross-secEarly this summer, a tion of the population is bound "This rag-tag comgroup of Congresspersons staged to be, frequently mis-informed, mentariat is, as any a sit-in over a controversial serandom cross-section un-informed or both. By giving ries of gun-control restrictions. everyone an equal voice, the inof the population is After the CSPAN feed was cut, bound to be, frequent- ternet has made it more difficult Congressmen and women turned to discern the insightful analysis ly mis-informed, unto a mobile telephone app called from the idiotic puns and amainformed or both. " "Periscope" to broadcast their teur stand-up. The tweets of an struggle to the world. Meanindividual with a Ph.D. in politiwhile, in an apartment in a fashionable neighbor- cal science are frequently indistinguishable from hood in Massachusetts, a man in his early twen- those of any random online jokester. ties was logging on to an online imageboard to Epistemologically, this is devaluing the anonymously share his opinions on the election distinction between knowledge - what we know with the world. These online imageboard com- for sure, what has been called justified true bemunities (often designated by the term "/pol/") lief - and conjecture - what we merely suppose or have become breeding-grounds for such notori- wish to be true. We have devalued the epistemic ous online memes as "Pepe the Frog" and have distinction between sources who know what fostered an entirely new strain of conservative they're talking about and random idiots with an thought: the digital world of the "alt-right". opinion. The internet has given everyone a voice Different forms of media have distinct from amplifying the voices of previously margin- and unique properties that shape how we experialized groups through powerful movements such ence those forms of media - watching a movie is as Black Lives Matter to giving a platform to far- always a very different experience from reading SUMMER 2016 17 �the book it's based on. The internet has it's own set of properties - looking at a friend's vacation photos on Facebook is much different from getting a letter with them tucked inside. The internet, in particular social media, creates a sort of competitive race for "likes" or "shares". This functions as a classic example of what is known in psychology as a Skinner box - each "like" or "re-tweet" an individual gets serves as a source of behavioral reinforcement, making the user crave for more. The spread of digital technology has also made our democracy more open and transparent - even when those in power wish it weren't. Just a few days before the Democrats were to hold ens to Machiavelli. But today, digital technology is so abundant and ubiquitous that it permeates every aspect of our lives. And because man, as Aristotle puts it, is by his very nature a political animal, technology is permeating our political lives in a way it never has before. We now live in highly-technological bubbles of almost pure artifice, in instant communication with every other bubble of technological artifice across the globe. At every moment, the internet throbs and pulses mechanically with the latest news, belching out a continuous exhaust of thinkpieces, hot takes, and armchair analysis. What does this mean for the future? Where will this interconnectedness lead? It is impossible to predict for certain, but it seems clear that campaigns will surely use digital technology with ever-greater levels of sophistication. Imagine a campaign running millions of highlytargeted micro-campaigns, in which they target individual voters separately, rather than attempting to appeal to them en masse. For example, if an individual is known for purchasing outdoor hiking gear on Amazon, they will be shown a candidate's positive record on environmentalism and climate change. Likewise, a voter who frequently watches YouTube videos on hunting and rifles might be shown a candidate's rating with PHOTO BY KNOWYOURMEME.COM the NRA. Whoever is ultimately successful in this their convention in Philadelphia, a massive leak of e-mails sent by top Democratic Party officials electoral contest might end up being irrelevant occurred. This leak exposed how the Democratic the systemic and epistemic changes the election nominee, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, col- has brought will long outlive the Presidential luded with high-ranking members of the Demo- term of whoever the victor turns out to be. 2016 cratic party and supposedly neutral media outlets actually might not end up being remembered for such as CNN and MSNBC to gain an advantage the election of the first female President, nor for in her primary contest against Vermont Senator the election of a bombastic outsider, but rather for Bernie Sanders. Experts now suggest that the leak the ever-accelerating development of communihad connections to Russian state actors. Nonethe- cations technology and the electoral changes it less, international cybercrime has now become an has brought. ■ important and illuminating part of our electoral process. Technology has always impacted how our political systems function, from ancient Ath18 THE EPOCH JOURNAL RELIGION & POLITICS The Politic of Religion On The Conflict Between Liberal Democracy and Religion BY MATTHEW MANOTTI (A'18) Why can't religious people keep their religion countries are united in that many of their citizens out of politics? In short, this is because religion share the same customs, beliefs and values. The is inherently political. By that, I do not mean that same is true for Hindu nations, Christian nations, all religions fit on our typical left-right political and the like. Religion thus provides a social basis spectrum, but that religion helps build commu- on which men can work together. nity- it helps develop a polity. The challenge for the modem state is Religions of all kind bring people togeth- creating this social solidarity within diversity. er. Whether in churches, temples, or mosques, Without religion providing common ground on religions endow their adherents with a desire to which to rest our values, the mob or government worship and practice as a group has taken the place of declaring in a similar way that a city exists what is good and evil. In other "Without religion as a single entity. However, reliwords, before Sparta's laws were providing common gion is not bounded by location, not written in stone, but chiseled ground on which to as a city or nation is. Instead, reinto the fabric of society. Now, rest our values, the ligions create a solid society by we have chiseled the laws into mob or government means of common beliefs, morstone. Without religion providing has taken the place als, and practices. A man from a common foundation on which of declaring what is Ethiopia and a man from Germasociety can remain a solid whole, good and evil. " ny have very little in common. we have had to develop other There is no particular reason that means of creating the "E Plurithey ought to consider each other as part of a sin- bus Unum". Some of these methods are economgle group. If these two men met on the comer of a ic (there's a reason we have this phrase stamped street of some foreign city, they have no reason to on our money), others are political (a centralized be loyal to each other. Until they share a common government), and others are technological (social ground, they are strangers, not neighbors. media gives us groups to which we feel we can Historically, religion has provided that belong). I wonder if there is an upper limit to the common ground. I have often heard that religion solidarity that these means can provide. Diverse divides people. This is true- it divides people into cities can be peaceful, but I am not convinced that their religious groups. But without the religion, I the inhabitants of those cities are happier than doubt that men would have been anything other the inhabitants of small communities. In a small than atoms whose unity and solidarity is weakly town, everyone is your "neighbor," and is likely provided by province and locality. Instead, re- to have the same values, customs, and beliefs that ligion creates cross-national polities. Muslim you have. Thus, a citizen of a small town has a SUMMER 2016 19 �greater sense of belonging- of being wanted and having a place in the community. That is not true of the city, where "neighbors" are few and "strangers" are many. How much trust can be developed between people who do not know each other, who have no knowledge of an individual's reputation, and who are not guaranteed to share a common set of values. Still, the hard data on the subject seems to be hotly debated, and I doubt that the conversation on the topic will end in my lifetime. I do not know if the modern liberal democracy is compatible with religion. It appears as though one must eliminate the other. If the 20 THE EPOCH JOURNAL king rules above God, then God is dead. If God rules above the king, than the king is not really the center of power. While both systems have advantages and disadvantages, it would be prudent to recognize what is being lost as the foothold of religion is loosened in America. Let us not forget Durkheim's discovery in Suicide, a Study in Sociology- that Protestants (a religion founded in individualism) kill themselves more often than Catholics or Jews. A man who is free from any social ties to which he must adhere himself is a man who is lonely. ■ INTERNATIONAL POLITICS The Collapsing Consensus Democracy in Decline and the Remaking of The West BY CYRUS SCHILLER (A'19) The world is awash in troubles. The troubles gated and managed in practice, it will always be a range from economic and political uncertainty to hallmark of democracy, for better or for worse. influxes of refugees to religious fanaticism, and Moreover, the treatment of women, slaves, and everyone in the world has something to worry minorities in "democratic" societies, from anabout. The troubles affecting our western society, cient Athens to the United States, has blemished and the effects that stem from them, are the symp- the system we tend to take for granted today. toms of an ailing democracy. The idea of democ- However, democracy today is practiced someracy itself is not ailing, for it will endure in its what differently from ancient Greece or from the formless abstraction; nor am I referring to de- United States for much of its history. What is mocracy in practice, the promeant by democracy nowadays cess by which leaders are seis the culmination of centuries "... it is easy to see how lected and policies are of liberal political thought. This democracies can run adopted, for that will also amok when harnessed by "Liberal Democracy" as I see it persist. What I am referring charismatic demagogues is the consensus that free speech, to is the failure of the inten- for their own personal or cultural and religious pluralism, tion of democracy to be carpolitical democracy, public eduideological ends. " ried out. Democracy, envication, and economic liberalism sioned by its proponents in constitute the best and most dehistory as the fairest political system, whereby veloped mode of civic life, the "good" that all huthe people constituting a political unit serve as man endeavor is directed at, to borrow an exprestheir own voice in its affairs, and where gover- sion from Aristotle's Politics. In my exploration nance is entrusted to the governed, is manifestly of the world as it is, I am approaching these noble in decline. Is democracy defeated? Will it and ideas not as a critic, but as a mourner. For, while similar strains of thought be eradicated by these I believe wholeheartedly that liberal democracy troublesome times? In all fairness, democracy is a fine system, it now appears that it is out of has seldom ever been completely fair for all peo- touch with the harsh realities of the world, and ple constituting a polity. From Alcibiades to Hit- that it is being rapidly overtaken by fear, ignoler to Donald Trump, it is easy to see how democ- rance, and tyranny. I think that the origins of this racies can run amok when harnessed by decay lie in the expansion of globalization and charismatic demagogues for their own personal the political, social, and economic consequences or ideological ends. Many political philosophers it has brought. After the Second World War, when have written about the toxic influence of power much of the world lay in ruins, the victors split and the desire for it, and while these can be miti- into two camps. The Soviet Union expanded its SUMMER 2016 21 �sphere of influence in Asia and Eastern Europe, creating a rigid ideological bloc that propagated Marxist-Leninist thought both in the developed world and in the new nations emerging from the rapidly crumbling European colonial empires in Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, soon to be joined by their former enemies Japan, Italy, and West Germany, set about creating a new global economic order based on capitalism and liberal internationalism. The idea behind this cooperation was to prevent the spread of communism, but also to forever ensure that militarism would never again grip Europe and throw it into another world war. If there was to be peace and solidarity in Europe, there had to be economic cooperation. Specifically, the adversarial tension between France and Germany had to end. From these humble beginnings, the organization of postwar Europe that later become the European Union would expand over the decades into the largest free trade area in the world, and the symbol of European integration. In the coming decades, these previously war-ravaged states experienced an enormous period of economic growth and prosperity. Meanwhile, the U.S . was experiencing a boom of its own, and an entire generation of people, the baby boomers, grew up and came of age in the most favorable economic circumstances ever known. The U.S. also built up the postwar economies of Taiwan, South Korea, and its old enemy, Japan, making the capitalist economic miracle a truly global phenomenon. However, the United Kingdom was not as much of a beneficiary, as it owed much financial debt to the United States, its economy was shrinking, and its empire was rapidly collapsing. For many of Britain's leaders, membership in the thriving European community looked increasingly desirable, and by 1973, after overcoming much opposition, the U.K. was finally a member. By the 1970s, however, a series of inflation cycles and supply shocks rocked the western economies, bringing industrial restructuring and financial hardship with it. The boom was definitively over. However, despite the sub22 THE EPOCH JOUR NA L sequent change in attitude in the 1970s and 1980s towards more conservative, free market policies, exemplified by Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher, the political consensus from the end of World War II remained, and the west rebounded somewhat in the 1980s and 1990s, although not without consequences, many of which we are still dealing with today. The 1980s also saw the accelerated implosion of the USSR, and by the early 1990s, the Iron Curtain had collapsed, releasing an entire cohort of nations from oppression, and thus expanding of the western liberal consensus. Some of these countries, such as Czechoslovakia, transitioned relatively painlessly into this new global order. Others, such as Russia under President Boris Yeltsin, experienced crippling economic hardship and heightened social problems under capitalism. Vladimir Putin, who had been a KGB agent in the Soviet Era, then head of the FSB, which was Russia's post-Soviet internal security apparatus, and finally prime minister late in Yeltsin's second term, emerged in 1999 as Yeltsin's replacement at the helm, at a time when the Russian ship was rocked with considerable economic misfortune and military decline, ethnic tensions, and the former Soviet Republics spiraling out of Russia's control. At present, Putin has further consolidated his control over Russia, and the reformed presidency he inherited in 2012, after another stint as prime minister, has given him more power than he had known previously. At present, Russia is poised to assume greater control over its former subject states, as the proxy war in Eastern Ukraine continues and as doubts linger over whether NATO will make good on its commitments in Eastern Europe or not. Despite massive popular protests against his rule early in Putin's second presidency, it is now safe to assume that Russia's experiment with democracy and liberalization is over. Press freedom is severely restricted, and Putin can reign in Russia with firm control press freedom and law enforcement, and little accountability to the Russian people. On the other side of the continent, the European Union is experiencing problems of its own. In the high tide of liberal democracy during the 1990s, the member states of the European Community ratified the Maastricht Treaty, establishing the modem E.U. as a political union and paving the way for the eventual adoption of the common currency, the Euro. Since the adoption of the Euro and the consolidation of the European member states, the E.U. grew steadily (albeit unevenly) until the 2008 financial crisis, a defining event of our modem age. At the same time, numerous migrants and refugees, mostly Muslims, were fleeing troubled regions of Africa and Western Asia and are continuing to make their way into Europe, a process that had been underway for decades but started to accelerate due to war, poverty, and political repression following the 2011 Arab Spring. As the union still grapples with the financial crisis and increased immigration, many countries have expressed frustration with the E.U.'s fiscal insolvency and tolerant immigration laws, both for immigrants within Europe and outside of Europe. For the past two years, special attention has been directed to France, a country with a large and mostly unassimilated Muslim population, due to a number of extremely brutal terrorist attacks against ordinary French civilians. Many of these immigrants live a life apart from mainstream society, and the lower class neighborhoods where many of them reside have proven an effective breeding ground for radical Islamic terrorism. The backlash against the E.U. has been severe. The inability of the union to steer the hardest hit countries out of financial ruin has given rise to numerous political parties pledging withdrawal from European financial institutions, and many countries dealing with migrants and refugees have seen increased electoral success for far-right parties, which promise to uphold "European" cultural hegemony and strictly limit immigration. The biggest shock of all came in June 2016 when the United Kingdom had a referendum on continued E.U. membership, in which "Vote Leave" succeeded contrary to many peoples' expectations. The ref- PHOTO BY WIKIMEDIA SUMMER 2 016 23 �erendum itself was nonbinding, however it does require the government to either commence negotiations or the parliament to trigger article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty. If the negotiations succeed, then the U.K. can most likely leave on favorable terms with the European Union. If the negotiations fail and article 50 is triggered, then all ties with the E.U. will be severed completely in two years' time, which would be disastrous for both negotiating parties. With Euroscepticism on the rise, some E.U. countries, particularly the struggling economies of the former Soviet bloc, have been regressing towards less political freedom and cultural tolerance. In Hungary, where Prime Minister Viktor Orban and his national conservative Fidesz party dominate politics, there has been a trend towards less liberal democracy. The freedom of the Hungarian press is being curtailed, new laws inhibit challenges to Fidesz policies, and recently, a border fence was constructed to stem the flow of refugees, which was accompanied by calls within Hungary to "keep Europe European". In the United States, meanwhile, Donald Trump has successfully capitalized on decades of pent up white working class anger to become the Republican nominee for President of the United States of America. As hard as it is to believe, Trump's rise was predictable. From the 1970s until now, the Republican Party was able to achieve lasting electoral success by shoring up support from working class white Americans, many of whom felt left behind by the Democrats, who since the 60s had arguably moved too far to the left and had become the party of civil rights and women's liberation. However, both parties were committed to the liberal democratic consensus, and the decline of the parochial working classes in the rust belt continued unabated. In 2016, frustration with establishment politics, reduced standards of living,and sluggish economic growth since the 2008 recession has given rise to two extraordinary candidates. Donald Trump achieved success on the right by bashing immigrants, free trade and mainstream politicians, while Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont 24 THE EPOCH JOURNAL achieved considerable (but somewhat less) suecess by attacking unfair corporate practices, the financial and pharmaceutical industries, and campaign financing. Even though he lost, Sanders may provide a glimpse at the future of the left, even though he is only radical by American standards. By mobilizing a large and enthusiastic popular following against the political and economic status quo, Sanders offers a more progressive response to the Democracies' lagging fortunes and the rise of right-wing nativist and authoritarian parties in the developed world. As countries that were once fertile for democracy regress into authoritarianism, and as authoritarian regimes such as China become more powerful on the world stage, Democracies need to respond with fresh vigor in order to reverse the ongoing decline of the Western ideal. But the question remains ambiguous: How are we as citizens of democracies to respond to the woes of the modem world? Shall we give ourselves up to the reactionary tide of autarky, nativism, and tyranny? Or, shall we breathe new life into our moribund democracies by promoting more fair and open societies, with equal rights and economic and social justice? The radical changes taking place in the world call for radical responses, and this question is solely up to us. ■ ECONOMICS Living with Keynes How Willard Maynard Keynes Changed Economics BY RYAN DAU (A'20) "We are all Keynesians now". namely gross domestic product, unemployment, This phrase, immortalized by a false at- and so on. Thus, there exists an unshakeable ditribution to Richard Nixon, was penned by none chotomy between the nominal economy and the other than the arch-free-marketeer Milton Fried- real economy, with total spending, influenced man in a December 31, 1965 issue of Timemag- both by private and public expenditures, impactazine. Consumers of "pop economics," a field ing only the former, and not the latter. Nominal which Friedman almost single-handedly found- variables are, to use the parlance of the time, a ed with the publication of the books Capitalism "veil" over the real economy, shrouding the imand Freedom along with Free to Choose, will no portant interactions between firm and client, emdoubt be shocked, with good reason. Friedman ployer and employee. As a result, government made his career as a public intellectual by op- public works programs could, at a pretty penny, posing the then-dominant Keynesianism in aca- boost inflation, but not job growth. Recessions, demic economics and public policy, allying him- then, were caused solely by government medself with the Reaganite supply-siders in the 1980 dling: a regulation here, coupled with a minimum presidential election and before that serving as an wage hike there, and the once flexible nominal economic adviser on the ill-fated Goldwater cam- variables become rigid and unmovable, propping paign of 1964. What, then, could he have meant? up the unemployment rate. The solution to a reLord John Maynard Keynes (his father cession, then, is simple: just stand there, don't do was a baron, a title he inherited) was a mathema- something. Or, more accurately, liberalize martician-turned-economist who, in 1936, published kets, lower tax rates, and wait for the economy to The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and come roaring back to health and wellness. Money, a learned treatise on the "new economAnd then came the 1929 stock market ics" which he had played a key role in founding crash, and with it, the Great Depression. Govat the University of Cambridge in the early 20th ernments in Britain, America, and Western Eucentury. Written to influence both economists and rope followed the classical remedy for handling politicians at the height of the Great Depression, recessions (after engaging in half-hearted fiscal Keynes repudiated, almost overnight, what was stimulus), and the economy stagnated. Keynes, called the "classical" view of the macroeconomy: in the General Theory, attributed this to what he changes in aggregate demand (the total amount of called "nominal wage rigidities", or as they are spending in the economy) only impact what econ- sometimes called, "sticky wages". Due to a comomists call "nominal variables," things like pric- bination of unionism, psychological forces (the es, interest rates, wages, and so on. Total spend- so-called "money illusion", where workers and ing has no impact on so-called "real variables," employers focus on nominal instead of real variS UMMER 2016 25 �ables), and the changing structure of the economy, wages were no longer flexible. As a result, even in totally unregulated labor markets, nominal wages could remain high even when demand for labor has fallen, producing what Keynes termed an "unemployment equilibrium". This result was viewed as impossible by classical macroeconomists. The only way to remedy this situation was to engage in vast, interventionist fiscal and monetary stimulus: expand the money supply, increase spending, and cut taxes to boost labor demand such that it can absorb these nominal rigidities and return the economy to full employment. What happened next vindicated what was now called "Keynesianism" via the biggest fiscal stimulus program in world history: the Second World War. As a result of rearmament programs across Europe and North America, unemployment fell to the point where there was labor scarcity instead of a labor surplus, and the boom carried on in America through the '50s (propped up by other fiscal stimulus programs, notably Dwight D. Eisenhower's interstate highway project). Within academia, Keynes's models for how the macroeconomy operated became the de facto, if not the de jure, method for exploring the operations of the economy and of the business cycle. Thus, even dissident economists like Milton Friedman relied on these models when critiquing left-wing government policies, using Keynes's premises to reach decidedly different conclusions. Thus, with modifications of Keynesian theory, although the general picture provided by Keynes is correct, it fails in the particulars; government spending may be stimulative, but it probably isn't worth the long-run cost of the stimulus, for example, or according to the monetarists (of whom Milton Friedman was their chief intellectual leader) only changes in the money supply can influence aggregate demand, making fiscal stimulus entirely impotent. Likewise, the rational expectations revolution inaugurated by the writings of the New Classical macroeconomists John Muth and Robert E. Lucas, Jr. placed severe lim26 THE EPOCH JOUR NA L its on the capacity for aggregate spending to influence real variables, a partial return of the classical dichotomy between nominal and real factors in the economy. On the Left, the New Keynesians adopted healthy portions of the new rational expectations model, finding that while one could stay broadly Keynesian in one's policy outlook, the ability for active fiscal and monetary policy to ameliorate recessions and depressions must be acknowledged as being highly limited. Nonetheless, even today when one opens up any principles of macroeconomics textbook, he or she will be confronted with the incomeexpenditure model, sticky wages, aggregate demand-aggregate supply models, all taken (and modified with a healthy dose of multivariate calculus and linear algebra at the graduate level) from the General Theory. All of us (or at least all of us trained in economics) are in this very real sense Keynesian. However, if one was to consult the average conservative, you would hear a decidedly different narrative: the economics profession was bamboozled by Keynes, tricked by a master rhetorician into cleaving the thin edge of the socialist wedge into capitalism. The so-called "supplysiders", led by the unorthodox economist Arthur Laffer and a group of journalists and policy intellectuals situated principally at The Public Interest and The Wall Street Journal, aided by Friedman's disingenuous popular writings which conflicted explicitly with his work as a professional economist, attempted to resurrect classical macroeconomics in the public sphere, hoping this would spill over into academia. However, this was not to be: as of this writing, there is not a single "supplyside economist" at any Ph.D granting economics department in the United States. To make a long story short, Republicans needed an alternative model to Keynesianism that could be easily explained to voters, inadvertently alienating economists (due to supply-side economics' lack of formal and empirical rigor) who might have been sympathetic to the Reagan tax policy. Termed "voodoo economics" by George H.W. Bush when he ran against Reagan Obama's efforts to revive the economy were sucin the 1980 Republican primary, the supply-sid- cessful in reducing unemployment and increasers argued that tax cuts could increase govern- ing GDP growth, although there are still divisions ment revenue under certain conditions, a partially over whether this plan was worth the cost. Some correct result summarized in the now-infamous conservatives, especially the "reform conservaLaffer curve, and that labor supply was remark- tives" situated at National Affairs, have made ably sensitive to tax cuts, a mostly wrong result peace with Keynesian economics in the same way disproven by data compiled on labor force par- that Friedman has; the models are right, even if ticipation and the productivity of labor after the the policy prescriptions are wrong. Nonetheless, Reagan tax cuts were passed. Thus, one could cut in Donald Trump's platform, one sees the typical taxes, boost GDP, increase government revenue, supply-side prescription for America's economic reduce the role of government involvement in the woes, namely, sharp cuts in marginal tax rates on economy, and increase labor productivity all in capital gains, personal income, and corporate inone fell swoop. What more could a conservative come. The mediocre effects of radical tax cuts, ask for? when isolated from the other positive economic Alas, this was not to be; Reagan's tax reforms of the Reagan administration (chronicled cuts ballooned the deficit, had no noticeable popularly in Paul Krugman's Peddling Prosperimpact on labor productivity, workers ended up ity), should give conservatives pause about conworking fewer hours after the taxes than before, tinuing to put such undue faith in the prognosticaand GDP growth recovered to its historical norm tions of the supply-siders. but did not increase beyond that as the supplyThe rest of the ideological spectrum, insiders predicted. cluding a great many conservatives and conserToday, in the wake of the fiscal stimulus vative economists, from Robert Barro to N. Gregprogram imposed by Barack Obama, according ory Mankiw, have learned to live with Keynes. to a recent poll taken by the American Econom- It's time that the rest of the Right learn to live ic Association, a majority of macroeconomists with him, too. ■ (including several conservatives) believe that PHOTO BY WIKIMEDIA SUMMER 2 016 27 �ELECTION 2016 Battle for the Senate 2016 Will Trump Spoil the Party? (A'19) (A'19) BY HENRY BARTHOLOMEW AND CYRUS SCHILLER Authors Note: the following is a rundown middle ground that Metcalfe cannot possibly of every U.S Senate Election taking place in seize in this very red state. Safe Republican. - CS November 2016. State-by-state commentary Arizona is indicated by HB for Henry Bartholomew, John McCain (R-1) vs. Ann Kirkpatrick (D) and by CS for Cyrus Schiller. Incumbency This one is highly interesting. John McCain, a is noted by an "I " following the candidates long time target of the Tea Party, is facing a priparty. mary challenge. While polls show he is likely to clear that hurdle, his advanced age, along with his Alabama great unpopularity with the far-right in Arizona, Shelby (R) vs Crumpton (D) No matter how great the potential Clintonian may lead to the end of his almost three decades in wave of victory, let us be frank, it will do nothing the U.S. Senate. While Rep. Ann Kirkpatrick, his to change the outcome of the race. Alabama has Democratic opponent, would not ordinarily pose been a Republican stronghold for many years, a great threat to McCain's political career, his siand it is unlikely that fact will be changing for a multaneous fierce feud with, and tepid endorsement of, Donald Trump does not sit well with long time. Safe Republican. - HB many in either party in Arizona, a state Trump carried handily in the primaries. For now, I am Alaska giving this one to McCain. However, a decisive Lisa Murkowski (R- I) v. Ray Metcalfe (D) Senator Lisa Murkowski emerged from a prima- defeat for Donald Trump in Arizona, which is a ry defeat in 2010 to win a second full term with clear possibility due to his standing with Hispanic a successful write-in campaign. This year, with voters, may turn out to be McCain's writing on tea-party challengers safely out of the way, she is the wall. Toss-Up. - CS poised to easily win a third term. Ted Cruz won Arkansas the Republican primary here, and Murkowski's ambiguous stance on Donald Trump may actu- John Boozman (R-1) vs. Conner Eldridge (D) ally help her more here than it would in other Ironically, one state Hillary Clinton will most cerstates. The Democrats meanwhile, nominated tainly not be carrying in November will be the Ray Metcalfe, a progressive state legislator who one in which she served as First Lady. While Arsupported Bernie Sanders during the primaries. It kansas was a Democratic stronghold for most of is fairly certain that Metcalfe has no chance, since its history, even holding out while the rest of the Murkowski has a greater spending and name rec- South swung Republican, those days are clearly ognition advantage, is incumbent, and occupies over, and Republicans have practically transfor28 THE EPOCH JOURNAL -med it into a one party state. Arkansas has a strong populist tradition, and that -- combined with a socially conservative white majority in an overwhelmingly rural state is the single biggest thing going for Donald Trump. Senator John Boozman was handily elected in the GOP wave of 2010, and a defeat this year is highly improbable. While Former U.S. Attorney Conner Eldridge has a lot of strengths as a candidate, the enormous unpopularity of national Democrats, particularly President Obama and the former first couple, all but eliminates the possibility of his election. Safe Republican. - CS California Kamala Harris (D) vs. Loretta Sanchez (D) Speaking of one party states, here is California, home of Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan, and today a living testament to the GOP's failure to broaden its electoral appeal and bring diversity into the party. While Republicans do represent areas of California in the U.S. House, the heavily populated and fast-growing areas of the most populous state in the Union are about as likely to vote Republican as Alabama is likely to vote Democrat. In fact, the GOP is so irrelevant as a statewide party that they could not even nominate one of their own in a blanket primary, where the top two finishers face each other in an Election Day runoff. At the same time, the question for Donald Trump is not quite how many votes he will win in California, but how many he will lose. In fact, Clinton's victory in California will almost certainly amount to a wave so massive that no mad surfing skills can rescue the Republican Party in California from imminent drowning. For now, the choice is between Kamala Harris, the popular Attorney General of California, and Loretta Sanchez, a moderate Congresswoman from Orange County. While Harris is the favorite, a Democrat will win no matter what. Safe Democratic. - CS Colorado Michael Bennet (D- I) vs Darryl Glenn (R) At first glance, Senator Michael Bennett appeared to be in trouble. First of all, he was reelected by a razor thin margin in 2010, in what was a terrible year for Democrats. Secondly, his senior partner, Senator Mark Udall (D), was swept out of office in 2014 when he lost to Corey Gardner (R), in what was an equally disastrous year for Democrats. Bennet's opponent, retired Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Darryl Glenn, hails from the Republican bastion of Colorado Springs. However, what makes the greatest difference now is Donald Trump and the presidential election. While Republicans dominate vast rural and suburban swaths the metropolitan areas of Denver, Boulder, and Fort Collins are sufficient to lend this state a light blue hue. Election polls so far show that Michael Bennett has little to be concerned about. Likely Democratic. - CS Connecticut Blumenthal (D-1) vs Carter (R) The only poll here shows Blumenthal crushing Carter by a full 30 points. Furthermore, Connecticut hasn't voted Republican in decades. No contest. Safe Democratic. - HB Georgia Isakson (R-1) vs Barksdale (D) Isakson has a commanding lead over Barksdale, and I suspect that it would take something going truly off the rails for him to lose. Safe Republican. -HB Idaho Mike Crapo (R-1) vs. Jerry Sturgill (D) Behold this rural and mountainous state out west, known for its potatoes and minerals. Oh, and the Gem State has voted overwhelmingly for Republicans well into the present and has not elected a Democrat to a U.S. Senate seat since 1974. Safe Republican. - CS SUMMER 2016 29 �Illinois Mark Kirk (R-1) vs Tammy Duckworth (D) Oddly enough for such an important state, Illinois has had remarkably little polling. What little there has been has shown Duckworth with a lead, however, it really is difficult to say. As it is a rather Democratic state in a presidential election year, and in light of the polls we've seen, Leans Democrat seems appropriate, but with a hefty portion of salt. - HB Indiana Todd Young (R) vs Evan Bayh (D) Here we have a really interesting and important race. Indiana is traditionally a rather Republican state. It's gone red year after year, with the only recent exception being 2008 by a hair. However, it has a very good chance of falling into Democratic hands. Evan Bayh is a household name in the state, having been a governor and a senator in the past. He is popular across the aisle, with a full 16% of Trump supporters saying they intend to vote split ticket to vote for him. He has considerable financial reserves, having a blistering $9,500,000 in hand. He has high approval ratings. By contrast, his opponent, Young, has never held any national office, is far less well known, and has spent most of his money already, being stuck at barely a million in cash reserves. And a mere 3% of Clinton voters said they intended to vote across the aisle for him. While the state's natural conservatism could well kick in, polls show Bayh with an excellent lead, and it will be tough for Young to hold on. Leans Democratic. - HB Iowa Chuck Grassley (R-1) vs. Patty Judge (D) Even though Senator Chuck Grassley has made a name for himself as Judiciary Committee chairman by obstructing Merrick Garland's Supreme Court nomination, it is unlikely to hurt him in his reelection prospects. There is likely to be less Trump fallout in Iowa than in other states. While former Lt. Governor Patty Judge is a strong can30 THE EPOCH JOURNAL didate, and while Hillary Clinton is favored to win this light blue state, Grassley is not going to fall easily. Likely Republican. - CS Kansas Jerry Moran (R-1) vs. Patrick Wiesner (D) Ah, Kansas. You never disappoint us with your cereals, your wide open plains, and your steadfast commitment to the Grand Old Party, even reelecting your much despised governor two years ago over a Democrat whom even many Republicans supported. Even though Ted Cruz trumped Donald Trump in the 2016 Republican Primary here, Trump is extremely unlikely to lose this overwhelmingly white and rural state, and the freshman Incumbent Jerry Moran practically assured a victory in November, and due to Trump's low standing with college educated suburban voters, who mostly support Republicans in presidential elections, Moran is likely to outperform Trump. Safe Republican. -- CS Kentucky Rand Paul (R-1) vs Jim Gray (D) Rand Paul has a national profile, and is well liked and respected by many. While his fights with Trump have undermined him somewhat, Paul should have little trouble locking this state up. Safe Republican. -- HB Louisiana Jungle Primary Louisiana is unique among U.S. states to have a blanket primary on Election Day, and following the "Jungle Primary,", which sadly does not involve _actual jungles, the top two candidates face each other the following month in a runoff election. The top tier candidates to replace Senator David Vitter (R) on the Republican side are Reps. Charles Boustany and John Fleming, and State Treasurer John Kennedy (No, not THAT John Kennedy). The most popular choices on the Democratic side are Public Service Commissioner Foster Campbell and Caroline Fayard. The most recent major polling in the race was in June, showing Kennedy and Campbell as the highest polling candidates. In addition, KKK leader David Duke is running, although the sheer size of the Republican primary field, his low standing in the polls, and his sheer infamy makes it highly improbable that he will advance to the runoff, despite running alongside Donald Trump, who, unlike Duke, appears to finally be taking off the sheets as his advisors try to wake him up to the reality of his struggling presidential campaign. While it is uncertain who will ultimately triumph in the primary, John Kennedy's fiscal conservative credibility as state treasurer, along with numerous high-profile endorsements and a commanding lead in the polls, make him the most likely choice for U.S. Senator among Louisiana voters on Election Day. In the runoff, Kennedy's party affiliation in red Louisiana will likely be too much for Campbell to overcome. Even though the Democrats are less divided than the Republicans this year, it would take a series of grave missteps for the GOP if Campbell is to be elected. Thus, I predict that John Kennedy will be sworn in as U.S. Senator come January. Likely Republican. -- CS Maryland Chris Van Hollen (D) vs. Kathy Szeliga (R) Very little polling has been done in this state, as it is generally considered that Van Hollen has roughly the same chance as losing as a crab surrounded by hungry Marylanders has of surviving. What polling has been done shows Hollen up by as high as 25%. While some might point to the Republican governor as a reason for hope, it is worth noting that he won in an off year, with lower turnout, which traditionally favors Republicans, in a year that was a Republican tidal wave. Now, it's shaping up to be a tough year for the Republicans with Trump, it's not going to be an off year, and state Republicans have distanced themselves from their own party. Safe Democrat. --HB Missouri Roy Blunt (R-1) vs. Jason Kander (D) Once the quintessential bellwether, Missouri has been trending redder for the past couple of years, breaking its record of voting for the winner in every presidential election since 1908, when it voted against Barack Obama not once, but twice. By now, the rural heart of this heartland state has Ohio turned decisively against the Democratic Party, Rob Portman (R-1) vs. Ted Strickland (D) and outside of the two large metropolitan areas of Ohio is one of those states you just know will be St. Louis and Kansas City, as well as the Demoimpossible to predict. Almost election cycle alcratic island of Columbia, home of the University ways depends heavily to which way it goes, its of Missouri, the National Democratic Party is not population can swing both ways, etc. However, as competitive in elections as it used to be. Nevwe can say a few things. We can say that Portertheless, Jason Kander, the fresh faced Secretary man is outspending Strickland by a 3 to 1 margin, of State and Afghanistan combat veteran, is an that he has an effective political machine, that he exceptionally strong candidate for the Demois relatively moderate, that he enjoys a relatively crats. While polls show the incumbent Republihigh approval rating, and that Republicans will can Senator Roy Blunt ahead by a few points, a sink a lot into defending this state. We can also Clinton victory in this reddish tinged state, which say almost all recent polls have shown him with is improbable but definitely possible, may just something of a lead, albeit not a huge one. In light be enough to for Kander to outrun Blunt in this of that, I would say Leans Republican, albeit with tight contest. If Senator Blunt is defeated, I suga pinch of salt there. -- HB gest that he overcome the Blunt trauma and move to Colorado to continue his political career there. Leans Republican. -- CS SUMMER 2016 31 �I Nevada Joe Heck (R) vs. Catherine Cortez Masto (D) Republicans have had their eye on Harry Reid's Senate seat for a long time, and the retiring Democratic leader is leaving a space that the Republicans hope to fill. In 2010, the GOP destroyed its chances of defeating Harry Reid in a winnable race by nominating Sharron Angle, a Tea Party fanatic and all around weak candidate. This time, the Republicans nominated Representative Joe Heck, a much more formidable challenger. To succeed the outgoing Harry Reid, the Democrats nominated Catherine Cortez Masto, the former Attorney General of Nevada who would be the first Latina Senator if elected. In an off year election, I think this race would go straight to Heck (Ha!), since Republicans tend to do better in midterm elections. Presently, Heck also leads in the polls by a few points. However, Cortez Masto could easily be the main beneficiary of the higher turnout from a presidential election, and Donald Trump on the ballot definitely adds a different Angle (Ha!) to this swing state Senate contest. Toss-Up. -- CS New Hampshire Kelly Ayotte (R-1) vs Maggie Hassan (D) This race will be a terribly tight one. Ayotte is running in the shadow of Trump, and her limbo of being neither fully for or against Trump has not produced a great wellspring of enthusiasm among her base. The race has attracted loads of outside spending, and while Ayotte does maintain an advantage in that regard right now, she is being undercut by Trump's swiftly decreasing popularity in the state. Recent polls show Hassan opening up an edge, however, it is too far out from Election Day to be sure which way the race will go. Toss-up. -- HB North Carolina Richard Burr (R- I) vs Deborah Ross (D) North Carolina is an odd state to be up for grabs this year. It has voted Republican in 8 of the last 32 THE EPOCH JOURNAL 10 presidential elections, and as recently as 2004 Republicans were winning by as much as 13 points. Now, however, the polls show nearly dead heat. Clinton has a substantial edge over Trump, that has an excellent chance of bleeding over. To top things off, the Republican governor Pat McCrory, is also up for re-election, and is extremely unpopular thanks to the North Carolina bathroom controversy, having an astonishing 47% disapproval rating. Burr is really conserving his resources for the final push, and despite having a massive lead in financial reserves, Ross reporting 1.9 million, Burr with 6.9, he has spent barely anything. On the other hand, Republicans have registered 40,000 more voters than the Democrats have since last year, and Ross is a former ACLU director, which means that when Burr finally does unleash his financial reserves, he will have ample opportunity to paint her as a far, far leftist. Obviously this is going to be a very tight race, however, I'm inclined to say that it leans Republican. Burr's closeness in the polls have come after months of being out of state and spending little. Republicans are hard pressed on resources, and can not afford to help him too much in this suddenly competitive race, however, he may not need the help. He may simply need to be left alone. If he can disassociate himself somewhat from Trump and McCrory, and can use his personal resources skillfully enough, he has quite a good chance. On the other hand, if Ross is able to make the race about Trump and McCrory, he may be swept away in a Democratic tidal wave. We think, though, that as veteran politician Burr can manage a good, disciplined campaign, and probably has a 55-60% chance of victory. Leans Republican -- HB North Dakota John Hoeven (R-1) vs. Eliot Glassheim (D) No major polling has been done in this sparsely populated prairie state, however, one is not required to know a great deal about North Dakota to know that Democrat Eliot Glassheim is about as likely to be elected Senator over incumbent Republican John Hoeven as a Rabbi is likely to be elected Pope. Safe Republican. -- CS Oklahoma James Lankford (R-1) vs. Mike Workman (D) Barring a massive Sooner-style Tornado that tears through the entire state, destroying polling stations in Republican dominated areas on Election Day, there is absolutely nothing that can make this race competitive, especially when you account for the fact that the entire state IS a Republican dominated area. So much for that fantasy. Safe Republican. -- CS Oregon Ron Wyden (D-1) vs. Mark Callahan (R) Oregon is mainly remembered for Portland the ' largest city in the state, and which is known mainly for its thriving alternative culture and its quirky and unconventional residents. It was like San Francisco until San Francisco went totally mainstream. As you can imagine, no Republican would stand a chance of winning many votes in the Portland metropolitan area, which alone holds nearly half of the state's population. That, combined with the rest of the "Left Coast" portion of the state, as well as the fast growing area in and around Bend, makes it nearly impossible for a Republican to defeat an incumbent Democratic Senator. There is nothing this year that would likely widen (Ha) Callahan's chances of winning, since Republicans are likely to do exceptionally poorly the presidential race here. You could tally up every single inhabitant of the rugged and politically conservative interior of the state, and it still would not be enough to topple Ron Wyden. Safe Democratic. -- CS Pennsylvania Patrick Toomey (R-1) vs Katie McGinty (D) Pat Toomey had enjoyed a respectable lead here, right up until Trump's Kahn remarks, where he promptly tanked. Hope is not lost for him yet, however. Despite the fact that McGinty has been out fundraising him, Clinton apparently now con- siders the state safe enough to withdraw some resources from it, while the polls showing Toomey behind represent a swift and dramatic swift that may yet be reversed. However, that will require considerable skill on Toomey's part, and quite possibly a rejuvenation of the Trump campaign. Toss-up, but the Democrats have a golden opportunity here. -- HB South Carolina Tim Scott (R-1) vs. Tom Dixon (D) The day that the Republicans will have to fear losing South Carolina will be a true sign of either the end of the Republican party, or at the very least, its alteration out of all present form. Safe Republican. -- HB South Dakota John Thune (R-1) vs. Jay Williams (D) Senator John Thune was re-elected unopposed in 2010 with 100% of the vote. And in this deep red state, there are not going to be any Hillary coattails that Jay Williams can ride. Basically, the situation in South Dakota is as follows : in many ways just like North Dakota, only more Republican. Safe Republican. -- CS Utah Mike Lee (R- I) vs. Misty Snow (D) Utah is an extremely Republican state, even though Donald Trump is proving to be more than most Utah voters can handle. Nevertheless, Trump is likely to at least win a plurality of the vote here, the Democrats' failure to present a formidable challenger to Senator Mike Lee makes his re-election all but assured. While many politicos expected former Rep. Jim Matheson to enter the race, the popular moderate Democrat never did. Instead, the Democrats were left with Misty Snow, a grocery store clerk. All two major polls done in the last three months indicate that Snow must overcome an enormous polling deficit to pose even a small threat to the senator. Safe Republican. -- CS SUMMER 2016 33 �Vermont Pat Leahy (D-1) vs. Scott Milne (R) Casual polling shows this to be a totally safe Democratic seat, which is really only surprising if you're an exceptionally unobservant 6 year old. Safe Democratic. -- HB Washington Patty Murray (D- I) vs. Chris Vance (R) In many ways, Washington can be compared to deep-red Idaho, as the two share a similar culture on both sides of the border, and much of Washington's land area is rugged and mountainous. In fact, you can say that Washington is like Idaho but with a coast; a really, really liberal coast. Oh, also most of the population lives on said coast, especially in the bustling tech hub of Seattle, known all over the country as a bastion of progressivism. Actually, maybe Idaho and Washington are not all that similar. Safe Democratic. -- CS Wisconsin Johnson (R-1) vs. Feingold (D) Wisconsin will be a crucial state for Democratic victory in the fall. It hosts an extremely vulnerable Republican candidate, and is a relatively safe Clinton state. Feingold leads Johnson by a comfortable 11 point margin, and there is little reason to suspect that Johnson can do anything to turn 34 THE EPO CH JOURNAL this race around. Leans Democrat. -HB In Conclusion: The Democrat's path to re- taking the Senate is arduous, but far from impossible, and could consist of any number of paths. Their best path would be to start by retaking Illinois and Wisconsin, follow it up with a victory in Indiana, defend Nevada and then knock off Ayotte and Toomey. Combined with the very high probability they win the White House, that would give them an effective majority with Mr. Tim Kaine stepping in when .needed. However, they can do more than the bare minimum. They want icing, and lots of it. There are at least 5 other Republican states that have a chance of falling to the Democrats, and while they all are tinted red, only a few would have to fall to ensure that the Democrats could have a very nice hold on the senate. Meanwhile, the Republican path will lie in retaking Nevada, and holding New Hampshire and Pennsylvania. If they can really dig into those states, and not lose many of the pinkish ones up for grabs, they'll have a chance. But they'll be fighting a dozen battles, with an unpopular candidate, and weaker fundraising than normal. They'll be truly pressed to keep up on all fronts. Democratic victory seems likely, if they play their cards FEMINISM & TECHNOLOGY In Defense of Tumblr Feminism The influence of this one-of-a-kind social media platform on the coming of age of an entire generation BY KATELIN SAFFORD Authors Note: This work contains references to rape, child abuse, and PTSD. lfyou were to google the term "Tumblr Femi- nism," one of the first links that would pop up in your search would lead you to Urban Dictionary, a site that allows users to submit definitions for a plethora of words and terms that you may not find in a Webster's Dictionary. The Urban Dictionary entry for Tumblr feminism reads: "The school of feminist thought that, instead of fighting for gender equality, is more concerned with seeming liberal and feminist and not actually *being* feminist. This is often achieved through strict internet doctrine and openly ostracizing those who do not agree with them. One other symptom of Tumblr Feminism is that, when asked to explain their opinions, sufferers will get angry and storm off rather than actually answering the question." This is a pretty standard definition, where the addition of the word "Tumblr" to the concept of feminism has brought along with it all sorts of ugliness and negativity. The definition even seems to distinguish between Tumblr feminism and "real" feminism by stating that Tumblr feminists are not "actually *being* feminist(s.)" So we've established that "Tumblr" here is the bad word. But what is Tumblr? Tumblr is one of the many social media plat- (A'18) forms that has popped up in the last decade. Tumblr advertises itself as a "microblogging" platform, where users run non-traditional biogs consisting of long and short text posts, pictures, gifs, videos, and audio files. They can "reblog" things from other biogs onto their biogs (similar to the sharing feature on Facebook) and follow biogs, whose content will show up on their "dashboard" (which is similar to the timeline feature on Facebook.) Tumblr is unique in that the content is very varied and there is a huge measure of anonymity. The blog does not need to have your name attached to it and the picture doesn't have to be your face. Content ranges from everything to photography, history, politics, music, education, art, fiction, and personal posts about everyday life. Businesslnsider found that Tumblr is rare and valuable as an advertising platform because 46% of their demographic consists of folks between the ages of 16-24, one of the more difficult to reach demographics. They also found that "more total time is spent on Tumblr than on bigger social networks like Twitter, Linkedln, and Pinterest." This is likely because of the emphasis on multimedia content, meaning that many users spend a lot of time creating and interacting with the content, rather than just browsing their feeds or shooting off quick tweets. SUMMER 2016 35 �So how did Tumblr become a bad word? that many people find distasteful, and that is One thing that immediately comes to mind the one that has expressed a demand for "safe is that unique and very young demographic spaces" in their online and o:ffline worlds. that Tumblr has attracted and maintained. Safe spaces simply refer to places online or The demographic is both young and fairly in real life where people can feel safe, parpolitically vocal, which has led to Tumblr, ticularly with regard to their traumas. A safe more than many other social media sites, be- space is a place where someone with comcoming infamous for cringe-worthy political bat related PTSD doesn't have to be worried blogging. Under the umbrella of "cringe- about seeing a graphic war picture, where a worthy" I mostly include folks who refuse rape survivor won't encounter any mention to acknowledge any other viewpoint or who of rape or coercion. This involves, in a sense, dogmatically believe what they've been told a censoring within the space to keep upsetand try to enforce what they think is right ting things out. Part of the hive mind menwithout allowing for conversation, growth, or tality that often crops up in the super liberal learning. This is where the Urban Dictionary Tumblr demographic is one that is hell-bent on protecting survivors of definition likely comes from. "I also believe that abuse. In this sense, I think Not allowing for discussion leads many people to wonder people have a right to they err on the right side. I why these folks would ex- cut others out of their absolutely feel that no one should be shunned for their press themselves the way they lives who harm them, opinions, and it is infinitely do, and they conclude that is and a right to spaces important to listen to people perhaps because they like the where they can rewho disagree with you. I also appearance of being liberal believe that people have a treat from concepts more than they care about the right to cut others out of their actual issues involved. There that hurt them ... " lives who harm them, and a can also be a "hive mind" that right to spaces where they is established in large online spaces like Tumblr, which disallows for any can retreat from concepts that hurt them and thought or questions that put the hive mind's gather themselves, just like we sometimes collective opinions at risk. This hive mind on disengage from heated conversations to take Tumblr often protects itself by vigorously re- a breather or go home when we're tired. jecting and ostracizing anyone who slips up, There's a middle ground here that is often say by asking a question or doing something missed in conversations about Tumblr and the deemed racist or sexist or otherwise, with an demographic named after it. Safe spaces are implied insistence that mistakes are unfor- so important, online and otherwise, for innugivable and people can never change. While merable reasons. While critics would say that "calling out" the people in your life that you safe spaces isolate and insulate people from love who make mistakes can be an important important issues of conversation, I would arway of dealing with an issue, it must be ac- gue that having a space that is safe for taking knowledged that mistakes can be corrected or a deep breath before talking about a heavy learned from. or close issue is absolutely invaluable for There is another subset of this very good conversation. I love talking about the young and politically interested demographic issues that are close to me, even the heavy 36 THE EPOCH JOURNAL ones, because it's so important to talk about ligated to interact with it. My experience on these sensitive things, but I can't be blindsid- the website was one of coming onto it as a ed with them or my traumatic response will conservative-leaning Libertarian teenager render me useless. I want to talk about these whose racist, sexist upbringing had left me heavy or controversial issues, but it is crucial with very rigid ideals about the world around that I have a space where I can take a breath me, that often caused me to discriminate and prepare myself before entering the fray. against a whole host of people. I was conAnother critique of the desire for safe spaces vinced that being a "girly girl" implied being is that it makes those who want them weak, vapid and selfish, which caused me to aggresor that people are weak for wanting them. sively reject my inherent love for feminine My response would simply be that those things and try to be more boyish. On Tumblr, critics are not rape survivors being asked to many of the blogs I followed posted content talk about rape, or traumatized soldiers being I agreed with and liked- but much of it also asked to look at pictures of deployment, or challenged my worldview in a big and unchild abuse survivors being asked to watch comfortable way. I found that being able to documentaries about abused quickly scroll past the things children. It can be impossible I didn't like or want to read, "It can be impossible without knowing or having to to understand the strength and to understand the resilience these people have to think about the person behind muster simply to get through strength and resilthe post as I do on Facebook, their lives and try to process ience these people allowed me to slowly absorb what they've gone through. have to muster to get certain concepts and safely Survivors' contributions are through their lives ... " analyze my own feelings and valuable and safe spaces help position. I didn't feel threatto protect and enhance the parened reading something I ticipation of these parties in conversations didn't agree with, so I was able to process and about the issues that affect them. And Tumblr respond more slowly. I didn't have any honor was the first place I was ever introduced to to uphold against a poster who didn't know this idea that has become so important for my me and I didn't know. And sometimes those own well-being and the richness of my aca- opinions disagreed, I'm definitely not saydemic life. ing I blindly absorbed everything I scrolled This is why I can't help but defend Tumblr past, but I also found that I agreed in a bigger and its unique interface and way of present- way than I expected, and it really changed ing content, as well as much of the content my life. It opened up so many resources for itself. The idea of a hive mind goes both me, in a way that helped me to set aside my ways, and it has become quite trendy to rag pride and vain attachment to my previously on "Tumblr feminism" and the legitimacy held stances. I started to realize that loving of the platform. But much like twitter, Tum- pink cutesy stuff didn't have to contradict my blr has helped to revolutionize the way we strength, intelligence, and love for the people spread information and news. The interface's around me. use of the scrolling mechanic, with the added I would venture to say Tumblr has more anonymity not provided by Facebook, allows good content than bad, although I don't deny users to browse content without feeling ob- that plenty of bad content exists on the site SUMMER 2016 37 �POLITICS The Sinews of Democracy Campaign Finance and The Separation ofPolitician and Constitutent BY IVAN SYRITSYN (A'19) PHOTO BY CWOTE. TUMBLR.COM as well. Tumblr is not one entity- it is millions of different people with different ideas and passions and different ways of expressing those things to the world and the internet. Like any group, there is a fair share of bad apples. But these bad apples are easily blocked, and you can self-select for the kind of content you want to see. While this can contribute to a hive mind mentality or an isolating positive-feedback bubble, I maintain that social media should be primarily for fun. While Tumblr, twitter, and other social media platforms have helped to revolutionize the way we spread information, it is no substitute for real news and never will be. This is another reason I find it too harsh to judge Tumblr simply by the vocal political content- there is so much beautiful art, witty fiction, and gorgeous music on the site, as well as tons of educational blogs focused on history, linguistics, martial arts, and anything else under the sun that you could imagine. My experience on Tumblr was not unusual, either. So many young girls and women in 38 THE EPOCH JOURNAL my generation were gently encouraged to love themselves by constantly scrolling past pretty image macros that demanded "LOVE YOURSELF," in all-caps, or short paragraphs helping to reason out common insecurities or damaging assumptions about femininity and a whole host of other things. The passive information sharing on Tumblr helped to arm an entire generation of girls (and young people in general) with the tools to care about themselves and empower others, an effect that is often overlooked in conversations about the radical, dogmatic sect that Tumblr somehow became synonymous with. I would encourage everyone to question why they hate an entire·website for a particular sect of people and ideas that can be found lurking within it's depths, and to challenge their perspective of this distinctive social media platform and the power it has to do good in people's lives. ■ "I've always said that power is more important than money. But when it comes to elections money gives power... well, a run for its money."' --- Frank Underwood. the United States government. With a nominal GDP of $17.95 trillion, the US economy makes up 24.5% of the gross world product. This can give a lot of power to those who know how to maneuver these turbulent waters. That is why in the 2015-2016 election cycle the top sectors of the economy have spent over $1,482,521,410 in those who do not already know, political donations in order to sway political parFrank Underwood is the main character of theseties and candidates. ries House of Cards wherein after being denied These political donations are what enable the promised position of Secretary of State he different politicians to get reelected to their degoes on through power and cunning to become sired positions without having to worry about losthe President of the United States. As Frank proing out to an almost always underfunded opposgresses throughout the show he constantly eming candidate in an ever increasingly impersonal phasizes that power is more valuable than money political environment. Congressional and Presiand that it is through such political power as he is dential candidates have to care about hundreds acquiring that legacies are built. However, as his of thousands and millions of people respectively. experience shows, power does not come without This explosion of population and expansion of a cost. Frank Underwood happened to be part of voting power has reduced the individual power of the leadership of the very wealthy system that is the voter due to a simple process of division. As For SUMMER 2016 39 �the amount of eligible voters increases a greater divided without any sort of focus those interests amount of voters will be necessary to achieve the are thrown to the winds and are rarely heard by same amount of voting power. This decrease of those at whom they are aimed. From what I have gathered so far I have voting power per individual has a logical correladetermined that as the number of the electorate tion in the isolation of politicians from their constituency for no politician can truly listen to all has grown and the individual impact of voices people and understand their individual concerns. have diminished the political machine of this The only possible way that anything can be heard country has required more and more of a differis if individuals come together and petition the ent fuel. That fuel is money and inadvertently the politicians in unison. This, in a very basic form, time and lives of the people from whom this monis exactly what interest groups are and what they ey comes. For money is a representation of time do. Some groups may be smaller than others in spent and labor put forth. It doesn't appear in a the amount of people that comprise them and no person's hand out of thin air and from no cause. group is really large enough to vote in a politician Thus as different campaigns need more money, it requires much more than averby itself. Since they cannot diage people of common interest rectly tie the politicians to them"... money has become may put forth. Thus, even though selves through votes, groups take arguably the most money has always had a role in advantage of their current condieffective way to stress tions and use money to influence the importance of any politics, its role and impact has been increasing to a far greater their chosen candidates' points issue." level than before. With this inof view. As increased isolation crease the voters themselves are of politicians has become more accepted, it is important to project that which is worth less and often seen as commodities gathlacking in terms of personal contact through vari- ered and used at the appropriate time, with an apous appearances wherein the public perceives the pearance of goodness put forth to prevent tumult politician's understanding of the importance of and dissatisfaction which would break people out personal contact and interaction. If the person up of going along the rails preset for them. Thus as for election does not fulfill such rights the dis- we go forward with our lives we will have to obsatisfaction of the public will grow as they would serve whether, as money becomes more and more see the lack of effort to interact as a personal indi- influential in politics, the desires of the populace cator of the lack of care about themselves. These will be sufficiently addressed. Perhaps they will constant barrages of the public eye through po- be, perhaps not. If not then we have to observe for litical rallies and advertisements are quite expen- how long the situation can sustain itself before sive, costing from a few hundred to over a thou- something gives, whether those are more disorgasand dollars just for one 30-second spot on a local nized or united will have their voices be dominant station. Thus, in a time when the average House in the_political environment. Either way nothing seat costs near $1.7 million and a Senate seat stays the same forever and the winds of change near $10.5 million money has become arguably wear down even the sturdiest of mountains. ■ the most effective way to stress the importance of any issue. This phenomenon shows the effective application of the old phrase "United we stand or divided we fall." Wherever individuals have combined their money to push their interest so that their interests would be heard they eventually succeed. Wherever the interests of individuals are 40 THE EPOCH JOURNAL AGRICULTURE Your Right to Know Fear of Genetically Modified Organisms BY GRACE VILLMOW (A'20) Let's get this out of the way first: a GMO is an organism whose DNA was changed in a laboratory, typically by taking a gene from a related species, bacteria, or virus, and inserting it into its cells or editing the genome itself. The key steps, according to Harvard, are identifying a trait of interest, isolating said trait, introducing it into the desired organism, and then growing the organism. The pictured diagram (courtesy of the Monsanto Company) gives a basic overview. Enzymes (substances that organisms produce to act as catalysts that promote biochemical reactions), gene "guns", and bacteria are all common ways to create GMOs, although you would be loath to find an American that could name any one of these ways, or even describe what a GMO is. In fact, a 2013 Rutgers survey found that 53% of people know "very little or nothing at all" about GM foods, and a 2014 Pew Research Center survey found that a mere 37% of American adults thought that GMOs are safe to eat, even though a comprehensive analysis by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine has made it abundantly clear that they are; and 109 Nobel laureates (who unveiled their Letter Supporting Precision Agriculture just a few weeks ago) agree; and all GMO products must be FDA-approved before they are available for human consumption; and yes, GMOs are held to the same health standards that all our other food is. Why do Americans feel this way? Well, it's complicated. A bit of history: the FDA's first approval of a genetically-engi- neered product was in 1921 , before Watson and Crick discovered DNA. Frederick Banting and Charles Best extracted the hormone insulin from the pancreas ' of dogs and injected into a diabetic boy, saving his life and proving that insulin could treat human diabetes. To this day, 100% of insulin used to treat diabetes is a GMO or genetically engineered product, but let's jump to when humans started figuring out what genes are in the first place - Watson and Crick, 1953. DNA is double-helix structure composed of billions of tiny sequences, and so the concept of splicing and replacing these sequences to create an altered product was the next step in genetic sciences. This is where speculators hit their first wall - when humans edit a genome, are they playing God? And, furthermore, is it ethical? Well, regardless of your views, there was no one there to stop them, and thus Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen developed and successfully cloned the first GMO in 1973, a strain of E. Coli made to acquire a plasmid (pSC 101 ), making it resistant to an antibiotic called Tetracycline. Together, the two scientists discovered that an enzyme (Eco RI) would slice pSCI101at a certain site. Into that opening, they inserted another gene that held resistance to a different antibiotic known ' as Kanamycin. They repaired the plasmid, and successfully grew subsequent strains that were resistant to both Tetracycline and Kanamycin history was made, and the biotechnology industry expanded rapidly. We hit our next wall in 1994. Editing the genes in a mere bacterium is SUMMER 2016 41 1, �STEP 1: Identify a trait of interest I Search appropriate environment Agricultural Need Screen list of chosen plants STEP 2: Isolate the genetic trait of interest Comparative analysis of genomes to identify trait STEP 3: Inset the desired trait into the new genome Genetic trait is cut and pasted into a plasmid using enzymes ► Gene Gun shoots DNA coated metal particles into seed Plasmid inserted into bacteria that then infects cells STEP 4: Growing the GMO Carefully controlled growth chambers are monitored to ensure that the new GMO grows and replicates. Ultimate growth conditions are determined at this stage. 42 T HE E POCH JOUR NA L one thing - what about the food we eat? Well, the first commercially available GMO product for consumption was known as the Flavr Savr Tomato, from a Californian company known as Calgene. Submitted to the FDA in 1992 and deemed as safe as any other tomato in 1994, the Flavr Savr was made slightly more resistant to rotting and softening, while still maintaining its color and flavor. It ultimately failed as a moneymaker, but this is attributed to Calgene's general inexperience in terms of growing and shipping. Nevertheless, the Flavr Savr set a precedent, and other types of produce soon began to follow suit. Today, about 90% of com and soybeans produced in the United States are classified as GMO products, along with about 70% of papayas, 95% of sugar beets, and 94% of cottonseed. In addition to this, a whopping 70% of the processed food you've come to know and love at your local supermarket contains some form of genetically modified organism, usually derived from com or soybeans. So, we've been doing this since the 1920's - what's with all the uproar now? One of the biggest names in the fight against GMOs is the Non-GMO Project. Established in 2003 by a small "natural" grocery store in response to customers that were concerned about genetically modified soy lecithin in some of their products. They developed a campaign called People Who Want to Know, which wrote letters to the manufacturers of "natural" food products to discover the GMO status of their food. Inspired by the choice of the Big Carrot Natural Food Market (located in Toronto) to cease purchasing GMO products entirely in 2001, more and more companies, from non-profits to big name food companies, chose to capitalize on this Right to Know movement. And that's where anti-GMO companies excel: they disguise a fear campaign on the basis of pursuit of knowledge. Who can argue with one's Right to Know? In fact, anti-GMO organizations just gained a major victory: Obama signed a bill in late July that will require GMO labelling for all GM produce in the United States. But if GMO foods are held to the same FDA standards as any other food, why would companies choose to do this? The answer is unsurprising: money. Take Chipotle Mexican Grill's pledge to remove all GMOs from their menu - this wording makes it sound like they 've done a complete overhaul of their menu, but they've actually just replaced two items. They switched to a non-GMO com tortilla supplier, and they now use a certified nonGMO canola oil as a pricier alternative to their old canola oil. Chipotle altered just two items, but as a business move, the anti-GMO campaign was genius. They produce exactly the same food at a higher price, and they get to advertise a better alternative to their original product, drawing uneducated consumers (remember the 53% in our Rutgers survey?) into their restaurant. Chipotle appealed to the ignorance to over half of the population in the United States, raised their prices, and kept the same 66 of the 68 items on their menu - and it worked. In the months following their G-M-Over It announcement, their price on the New York Stock Exchange jumped up over 100 points. This is absolutely brilliant from an economic perspective, but absolute nonsense from a scientific one. Chipotle has not gone completely GMO free at all. They have no control over whether their meat has consumed GMO products or not (and when 90% of com in the US is a GMO, they typically do), and any sodas that they sell are also liable to contain GM products. This was actually brought up in a lawsuit, and it has since been put on their website that they do not control what their animals eat ... all the way at the bottom of their G-M-Over It page. Let's take a look at what else they have on there. They begin with defining how GM Os are made: "A GMO is created by inserting genes from one species (typically bacteria or a virus) into the DNA of another. This can result in a plant with characteristics that wouldn't occur naturally, such as producing pesticides or the ability to withstand high doses of chemical herbicides." Factually correct, but with misleading diction. The first word that stands out to me is "naturally", but let's look SUMM ER 2 01 6 43 �at all the other ways Chipotle tricks its consumers, that it cannot be used upon any added colors, arlike "chemical herbicides". What is a chemical tificial flavors, or synthetic substances. We have herbicide? Well, it's literally all herbicides. Every thousands of food companies all over the world single one, because all herbicides have chemicals. tricking gullible consumers into thinking they're Everything has chemicals. Water is a chemical. buying healthier, safer products, even though the But chemical is a scary word, and so they include word "natural" has basically no meaning. Now, it it - they're not wrong, but it's like mentioning could be interpreted that the specific gene comthat their grass is green and their water is wet. binations of GMOs do not occur "naturally", but How about "producing pesticides"? that isn't the case, either - don't those very same That's a scary way of saying resistance to bugs sequences occur in other genomes? There is absoand other vermin through the production of Ba- lutely no scientific basis to prove that one spliced cillus thuringiensis, or Bt, a bacterium part of the gene would not work just as well in a different Bacillus cerus family. Found all over the world organism ... but they don't want you to know that. They don't want you to know the science from soil to sand, Bt is differentiated from Bacillus cerus because it contains a plasmid that pro- of GMOs. They don't want you to know about duces protein crystals that are toxic to insects. Not the science (or safety) of Bt.They don't want you to know that growing GMO proonly has the EPA found Bt nonduce can result in over 20% more hazardous to humans, but they "... remember: the yield in the same amount of space have also exempted it from food FDA has no speresidue tolerances, groundwater cific definition for the as a traditionally-bred organism, or that GM produce reduces pesrestrictions, endangered species word "natural". " ticide use by 37% and increases labelling, and special review refarmer profits by up to 68%, and quirements. It has no known effect on any wildlife other than insects. Essential- they definitely don't want you to know that any ly, just because it is toxic to a grasshopper does FDA-approved GM crops (read: every GM crop not mean it is toxic to a human. Would you stop available for consumption) are safe, have always eating chocolate because it is toxic to your dog? been safe, and will continue to be safe. The enI could rant and rave about "high doses of pes- tire anti-GMO industry benefits from consumer ticides" (typically farmers use the equivalent of ignorance, at the expense of farmers, the environone soda can over an entire field) and how they ment, and even ourselves. Yes, consumers have a completely left out the actual science of genetic right to know - but a label won't educate them. It modification in favor of mentioning bacteria and won't tell them which genes have been edited or viruses (more scary and meaningless words), but for what purpose. The science of GM Os needs to let's move onto my favorite word: "naturally". be taught in schools, to ensure that students will What does it mean for something to oc- grow up to be smart consumers that won't overcur "naturally"? Bears occur naturally. So do pay for the same product just because it has a nonearthquakes, radioactive decay, cancer, Ebola, GMO label on it. The bill Obama signed will only and cockroaches. Meanwhile, in the unnatural scare consumers away from perfectly safe food. department, we have vaccines, most of modem Many consider GMO foods to be a stepmedicine (RE: insulin), air conditioning, and ping-stone towards eugenics, another highly conTwinkies. Between bears and Twinkies, I think troversial matter that even I don't have a concrete I'll take my chances with the packaged pastry. opinion on. We have the ability to create super-huPerhaps I'm being facetious, but remember: mans; cure genetic disorders; and even eliminate the FDA has no specific definition for the word diseases, but at what cost? Our humanity? I'll be "natural". The only stipulations of the words are the first to admit that I don't know how far is too 44 THE EPOCH JOURNAL far. However, to the extent of my concern, GMO foods are yet another boon of human scientific development, much like in-home electricity or my personal favorite invention, indoor plumbing. In some cases, such as Golden Rice, GMO foods have even been proven to provide nutrients that consumers would not otherwise have access to. If I can leave my valued readers with one message about GMOs, it is this: educate yourself. Whether you choose to consume them or not, GMOs have become a staple in agriculture and a constant in your medicine - and that is your Right to Know. ■ SUMMER 2016 45 �JOURNALISM & POLITICS In Their Own Words BriefInterviews with Journalists and Politicians on the Role of the Media warding supporters or contributors with quidpro-quo 's. Where we sometimes fall short is that there, frankly, aren't as many reporters as there should be covering government, especially local and municipal government." ■ Laura Olson Kristen Welker BY SA WYER NEALE (A'18) This election cycle, the press is under attack. From being blamed for the rise of Donald Trump, to the pronounced influence of the democratizing effects of social media on the spread of information, to both nominees acting with an ostensible contempt for the press -- either revoking press access, as Trump has with the Washington Post, Politico, and the Huffington Post, or refusing to hold press conferences, as Sec. Hillary Clinton did from December 2015 to September 2016 -- the fourth pillar of our democracy appears to be both under pronounced scrutiny and to be in the process of being pushed out of the loop of our national conversation. With "mainstream media" becoming a popular slur for our news-sources, and in an age where anybody with a cellphone and Twitter can become a news reporter, we are forced to ask a serious question: what is the role of the press in a democracy? In April 2016, I, Sawyer Neale, was elected as a Delegate to the Democratic National Convention, representing Pennsylvania's 15th Congressional District. Over the course of the Convention, I had unparalleled access to journalists, both unknown and widely-renowned, and governmental officials working on every level of government, ranging from municipal, to state, to federal-level. Upon realizing in the weeks leading up to the convention that I would have this degree of access, I decided to spend my week in Philly seeking to find answers to the question of what the press ought to strive for. In this seeking, I attempted to find answers from members of the 46 T H E EPO CH JOUR NA L press, and politicians -- in their own words -- as to what role the ever-present media ought fulfil in a democracy. The following are some of the many responses I received over that week. Prior to the responses, which have been edited for clarity, are brief notes on the individual interviewed. ■ John Micek is the Editorial and Opinions Editor at The Patriot News. What, to you, is the role of the media in a democracy? "I've always seen us in an idealistic, old fashioned way, as a hedge on power, as a watchdog on authority. Sometimes we accomplish that goal in the way we're supposed to, and sometimes we don't, but I'd like to think that more often than not, we succeed." What does the differentiation look like? "The good way is reporting how money is spent, is holding power accountable, like finding out if some politician stands to benefit from a particular vote or a particular action he or she is taking, or if they are re- Laura Olson is a rep orter f or the A llentown Morning Call covering DC politics and p olicy. What should the media strive to do in a democracy? Kristen Welker is NBC News 'sWhite House "I think, hopefully, we aren't only telling Correspondent and member of Sec. Clinton 's people what's going on, but also putting it press corps. into context. We should be saying 'here's the What, to you, is the role of the media in a issues the candidates are talking about, here's democracy? where they agree, here's where they disagree, "I think that our role is to be watchdogs for and why this is happening.' I think that's imp oliticians, to hold them accountable for their portant because otherwise it's hard to make actions, their words, their policy proposals, decisions as to who should govern us. So, and their promises to the American people. we 're putting out information, as well as That means that we absolutely necessarily helping you sort through that information." ■ need to do a lot of fact checking. We don't always get it right, but we try to. Our job is to give the American people as much information as possible so that, on Election Day, they 're informed as much as possible." ■ SUMMER 2 016 47 �MikeVeon staying neutral. They have editorial pages, of course, where they editorialize on who they support, why they think this person should be elected, but I think that their news coverage is still not slanted, not political. I think there are some broadcast reporters do that, but it's mostly in the print. I think that's an important component!" ■ Mike Veon is the Former Majority Whip in the Pennsylvania House of Representative, who resigned after being convicted as a part of the Bonusgate trials of 20 I 0. What is the role of the media in a democracy? "I think the media has a very important role, and have held that role for a long time. Some of the media has seen that role changing, so that there is a more partisan press, today, for example, than there when I got into politics, just 30 years ago. Most of the press back then was much more neutral, and we've seen the landscape change in the way that the media covers politics. So, there was no FOX News, MSNBC counterpart opinions 30 years ago. This has made a dramatic difference in how media covers politics." Do you think this change is for better or for worse? What should they be striving to? "I think there is no one single thing that the media should do. I like the idea that there is a more partisan media presence. I understand that FOX News is going to promote the Republican Party. I recognize that MSNBC is going to say better things about Democrats. I think that as long as you understand what the rules are, you can work with the media. I think there also should be, and there are, media organizations who play it very much so down the middle. There are many print newspapers, for example, do a very good job of 48 THEEPOCHJOURNAL G. Terry Madonna is a prominent pollster and political commentator in Pennsylvania, and a professor ofpublic affairs at Franklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, PA, where he serves as director of F &M's 'Center for Politics and Public Affairs' and as director of the nationally-renowned Franklin and Marshall College Poll. In view of politics in general, what should media strive towards? What's the ideal goal of the media? "I'm a little old fashioned, and here's why: I think when you're covering a campaign, you ought to write what the candidates say, keeping it factual, not adding their own viewpoints about it. Don't put a line in there of interpretation. It's strictly about what the candidates say. Now, on the other hand, when you're on the editorial page, all things are fair game. They can have any opinion they want. The thing that's more fascinating is that recently the fact that a lot of reporters, in addition to covering events, also themselves do editorials. They are writing think pieces and columns, and that always results in the question being raised of 'well, when you're reporting, are you then adding your viewpoint into your reporting?' ... Another aspect of it, is that now you have a lot of reporters doing national talk shows. Like, you have a reporter from the Washington Post, or the New York Times, and now they're regulars for commentary, and so that's where the lines get blurred very quickly." So, in your view, the good kind of journalism would be straight facts, straight news, minimal editorialism, right? Why does that matter? What's the goal of it? "It matters because you have readers who are influenced by it. As such, I think you have an obligation when you're writing a news story to just write the news. Here's another aspect that's pretty important: today, you have most viewers, most listeners, most readers, read and view and listen to the content and to the stations that reinforce their own views ... Unfortunately, most people today are only comfortable with their views being reinforced, which is critical. They don't often challenge their perception of the world, and I don't think that's healthy for democracy. " ■ Mark Cohen Mark Cohen, elected in 1974 in the wake of Watergate, is the seniormost member of the Pennsylvania State House of Representatives. What is the job of the media in a democracy? "The job of the media in a democracy should be aiding the democracy. Giving people information in a manner that informs them, and doesn 't just inflame them. I think that the rise of FOX News over the last 20 years or so, has been a total disaster for the public. It's totally redefined journalism, and made journalism less reliable, and less effective in getting across the message of what people are actually standing for. " A cross between a watchdog, and transference of information? "I think they should be striving to give information. Sometimes the watchdog approach does that, but all to frequently it results in, for example, illegal leaks of documents from prosecuting agencies, be it the PA Attorney General's Office or the FBI. " ■ SUMMER 2016 49 �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Epoch Journal Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data paper Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 26 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Epoch, Volume X Issue 1 Description An account of the resource Volume X, Issue 1 of The Epoch Journal. Published in Summer 2016. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Neale, Sawyer (Editor-in-Chief) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College owns the rights to this publication. Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource Current events--Periodicals International relations--Periodicals World politics--Periodicals Economics--Periodicals Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EpochJournal_vol10_issue1 Student publication https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/8adb3df25e6ed422f1870eadfd87520b.pdf fb62f109583ced50ce5bd558f91bc119 PDF Text Text EPOCH JOURNAL THE V OLUME I SSUE I Faff 2019 Democracy: a Privilege that Bangladesh Cannot Afford by Nobonita Chowdhury Southern Identity and Independence ... but not the south you're thinking of I 13 by Andrew Hill plus Absalom! by Joseph Richard VOLUME �Letter from the Editor the EPOCHJOURNAL FALL 2019 VOLUME more. xrn, ISSUE 1 © 2019, The E poch Journal disclaimer The E poch Journal IS PRODUCED AND DISTRIBUTED IN ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND. OPINIONS EXPRESSED IN ARTICLES OR ILLUSTRATIONS ARE NOT NECESSARILY THOSE OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD OR ST. JOHN 'S COLLEGE. advertising PLEASE CONTACT EPOCH@SJC.COM FOR INFORMATION ABOUT ADVERTISEMENTS mailing address ST. JOHN' S COLLEGE 60 COLLEGE AVE. ANNAPOLIS, MD 21404 submissions ARE YOU INTERESTED IN WRITING FOR THE EPOCH JOURNAL? WE ARE CURRENTLY LOOKING FOR EDITORS, COLUMNISTS, AND GENERAL SUBMISSIONS - FOR MORE INFORMATION , CONTACT THE EDITORS AT EPOCH@SJ C.EDU. website WWW.EPOCHJOURNAL.COM THE EPOCH JOURNAL EDITOR-IN - CHIEF Grace Villmow LAYOUT EDITOR Raz Darrow EDITORIAL BOARD Ece Tuglu Gavin Lancaster Joseph Padgett Alberto Valenzuela Avinash Kumar John Monday CONTRIBUTORS Nobonita Chowdhury Andrew Hill Reuben Morris Joseph Padgett Joseph Richard James Rubidge © 2019, The E poch Journal We pay too much attention to leaders. I don't want to hear about leaders any- Let me elaborate. I recieved an email from the school a few weeks prior to writing this, addressed to the "movers and shakers" of the senior class. It was from a well-meaning woman from the alumni association who had gone to everyone she could think of: the dean, career services, Chris Krueger. Everyone except the tutors, I guess. So we were called upon, about twenty-five of us in total, to help the school facilitate our transformation from student to alumni. Most of us were uncomfortable. Those who weren't should have been. I had no friends in that room, I didn't expect to. I don't hang out with movers and shakers, or at least, I don't hang out with these ones. They were the usual suspects, you know who they are. A disproportionate number of sports-ball captains, big-name party club archons, and legacy students compared to the rest of us. And they're great, they really are. We had a good conversation. I wish I could say in good faith that we accurately represented the senior class, but we didn't. We go to one of the last schools in the world that don't treat education as vocational training. Why, then, did they only call upon students who were known particurlarly for non-academics? The people who make this school what it is went unrecognized, and they went unrecognized because we've forgotten what matters. They come alive in the classroom. That's where it matters. They don't treat St. John's as a stepping stone; they treat it as an end in itself because that's exactly what it is. Stop calling them room johnnies like it's a bad thing. Maybe you should spend some time alone. Real leaders, real powerful forces for good don't seek glory, and so they rarely get any. But answer this question: would it have been better if Christ rode into Jerusalem on a valient steed with a flaming sword? No. The donkey means more. You don't need a steed. The things you need are so much greater than you are. Seek to listen. We do good as instruments of God, not of ourselves. That's why politics corrupt. This has been a message from your beaten-down editor. You won; I'm the bad guy. Does that make you good? Sincerely, Grace Villmow (A'20), E ditor-in-Chief VOLUME XII, ISSUE I I WINTE R 2019 �Contents 5. On the Nature of the State and its Relation to the Church Joseph Padgett (A'23) 9. On Factionalism in the Federalist Papers James Rubidge (A'20) 14. Democracy: A Privilege that Bangladesh Cannot Afford Nobonita Chowdhury (A'21) 16. Southern Identity and Independence Andrew Hill (A'21) 23. Absalom! Joseph Richard (A'22) 28. All that Appears is Good Reuben Morris (A'20) THE EPOCH JOURNAL Societies that are or claim to be demo- prescribe laws to establish the state, and prescribe cratic or representative of the desires of their peo- through the state. Some people may have separate ple, seem often to embrace secularism, so as to sets oflaws apply to them, such as feudal lords or be impartial on the subject ofreligion, by which I foreigners with visas, but all have laws applied by am somewhat vexed. I see secularism as a disclu- a specific state to them. This body to whom laws sion of the church from the state. For what does are prescribed I shall call society. Societies may separation of these entities entail in democracy therefore overlap, but all societies have a state, and representative government? Why is it the na- because they are defined by the laws applied to ture of the state, or perhaps that of a good state, them by the state. The state consists of members of its sothat it be separate from the church? What is the nature of the church that it ought to be separate? ciety, and laws apply both. For even in dictatorIs there not some level of contradiction between ships there are invariably laws that apply to the secularism and democracy in a society with any people, or persons, that is, the people part of the members of a religion? The nature of the state is state. How the law applies may vary in nature, complex, however, though I might divide it into but that it applies, is constant. This is because the two general parts: a state has people and a state mere fact of prescribing any set of rules or rehas laws which are less physical. strictions is law. Even in cases such as the absenA state cannot exist without people. This tee papal fiefs in England, the Italian churchmen is because the purpose of the state lies in its peo- still demanded a regular flow of income to themple, as the purpose writing lies in its readers. That selves. And by including themselves in this law, is, the state exists in relation to people. This rela- the included themselves in that society. In most tionship cannot be defined without law, for it is cases, the people in states more obviously come law that determines both how and to who the state from society, whether by election or nationality or some similar means. In addition, the state, conhas a relation, and what sort of relation that is. Law defines the relationship of the state taining these people, prescribes laws which relate to people. Laws are sayings, orders, imperatives, to society. Therefore, to some extent, the state with the implication of obedience by the people represents society because it influences society under the state. But it is not this simple. The state with law. Here I must here digress, because influsays, but indeed how the state may say such laws is itself prescribed by law, often in the form of a ence may be made in two forms . Society influencconstitution. It is in this way that the state relies es law, and law influences society. It is difficult on people, for ultimately, it is people who must to describe how both influences work together VOLUME XII, ISSUE I I WINTER 2019 �as one, but it is clearer to see how they work together when viewed separately. Such influence on both parts is also on a spectrum and varies by degree in stead of dividing into a dichotomy. Society influences law. This is done when a member of society also becomes a member of the state, where new laws apply to that member governing what the member's relation is to making law. Being still part of society then, the laws that derive from that member are influenced by society. The opposite case is anarchy, where there is no law for society to influence. The spectrum then lies in how much of society has influence over laws, for in some societies only a few people may have direct influence. Law influences society, because society follows law. If there were no society, law would be nothing, for it would apply to no one. When members of society do not follow particular or general laws, the law loses influence over them, because they do not follow it. It might be said then that there is a correlation, that as society (as a whole) has influence over what law is, law has less influence over society. This estrangement can not lead anywhere good for society or the state, as each relies on the other to exist. Members, however, make up society, and they are in no wise homogenous in their thoughts, which complicates the process by which societies relate to laws. A dead law is one that no one follows, and thus living laws are ones that are followed. Likewise in society, a law may be more or less a living law as judged by how much it is followed as a proportion to the number of people in the society. However, in a society, it is possible that some individuals will disagree with the members of the state who determine laws. It is further possible that they would not follow the laws proposed by these members, for reasons profound or trite. Conversely, whether or not a law is prescribed by the state, it may still be observed by society, or a large portion of its individuals and thus be very alive. This sort of law prescribed by society I shall call custom, to distinguish it. Then it is clear that all laws are not dead or alive to the same extent as each other. It is society, it seems, which plays a much more THE EPOCH JOURNAL definitive role in the health of law. For if states do as they often do, they will remove someone who violates a law from society, acknowledging that it is the society that has influencing power. In some ways this weakens the law and in others it strengths it. The removed individuals usually suffer a restriction of action, though sometimes they are simply exploited for revenue through fines. It seems important to now, at least briefly, discuss the concept of enforcement, which both state and society may employ when laws or customs are broken. It seems that enforcement has two manners by which it may be reconciled. The first is through material compensation, whereby an individual gives up possessions to heal the breach between themselves and the law or custom. The other method is to remove the individual from society, presumably until they have understood the nature and gravity of their violation, and maybe reconciled it, though the motive is neither consistent nor clear. When this occurs, society grows smaller, and the law both weaker and stronger. The law appears stronger to those in society, for an individual has been prevented from violating that law, but it may also be considered weaker, if the individual never re-enters society proclaiming their obedience to that law. But if the individual is removed into a separate society within the primary society, usually a prison, then they come under the influence of a new separate set of laws, and indeed under a new and separate state. This seems to me to run counter to any ideas of re-including such individuals in society, especially if such individuals are set against obeying laws prescribed by the state. Here is where the church may debut. I would posit that making the state secular in a society that contains churches is inviting weakness into law, and thus into society and the state. A church is, however, a society of sorts unto itself, or can be, mine is less so, but in some religions the customs are quite temporal, such as dietary restrictions and prayer times. I mean this in that they limit behaviour. Individuals in a church I think are of the mind to favour their church over society in matters of custom and law, favouring divine wisdom to that of society. Thankfully, these can often align in laws, but sometimes they will contradict. This is especially the case in a secularised state, where declining to pass or supporting laws based on religion is decried, and the church, despite being made up of individuals who are also members of society, is driven from the state wholly. I think that is a mistake, at least in a democratic society, one that claims to reflect the wishes of its individuals. A democratic society proclaims as its chief virtue its listening to the will of the people, which is accounted by my depiction of society and its individuals. If these individuals are members of the church, it follows that the church should be included as part of that society, at least partially, for churches tend to span across states, rather than stay with a single state. It seems to me that a separation of church and state would either require a separation of the church's society from the church, which seems difficult to effect, or a separation of the church's society from the society associated with the state, which also seems difficult. Both also seem to potentially violate the wishes of the individuals who have chosen to be a member of both societies. Both indeed seem undemocratic. For the one which separates members from the church would need to declare so by law, that •is, through the state. If this were against the wishes of the members of the church, it would then violate that democratic principle. In the other method, again through state action, the church society could be cut off from the rest of society, but this again might contradict their wishes, and so be undemocratic. It seems then that the democratic state must relate to the church in some other way then, unless it seeks change in its law and society, for changing one would change the other. The art of statecraft is not in rejecting parts of society, but instead in discovering how to reconcile contradictions that might arise, which I suppose I shall now explore. I have encountered in history several ways to resolve differences in individuals that arise through society. I have observed the aforementioned methods, expulsion and forced renunciation, as well as majoritarianism, inde- pendence, and subdivision. Expulsion and forced renunciation seem to me generally distasteful, and are both difficult to effect. For I have previously somewhat ignored custom, but within society, among its individuals, custom forms sub-societies, and the church might be considered one even, and these subsocieties overlap a great deal, such that to rend these sub-societies is to generally rend and tear society, which weakens society and law. Forced conversion pushes the conflict from intra-societies to the individual themselves, which still has a similar effect, if some do not renounce, which is usually likely. Even then, some may continue to hide the customs they renounce, which hurts the law rather than helping it, and scarcely remedies the fractured nature of society, with some living with and others violating certain laws. Majoritarianism is a mistake, for it is simply the use of a majority among members of a state to impose a law upon society which will necessarily, by nature of its majoritarianism comes with a minority, and so majoritarianism is a means by which a state may resort to forced renunciation or expulsion. Independence is an interesting idea, whereby the religion is treated as separate society and given special accommodations to that end, such as reserved places in the government. It instead seems to add separation within the state, which I suppose could be fine. This however may invite more problems, for though churches are easier to delineate, why should they alone of all subsocieties be privileged with independence and special considerations? Thus in measure the idea could work, but in practice, some sub-societies must be excluded, or else the state will be confusing mess, for the whole problem of separation of church and state arises from potential contradiction between different law giving sub-states. For it makes sense, if every society has a state, that every sub-society has a sub-state, which prescribes its laws or customs, the two being similar enough as far as prescription. And while this is partially a question for the individual, to determine their society, it is also a question of how a state should prepare to deal with such interactions. Note well that determining society VOLUME XII, ISSUE I I WINTER 2019 �is a sort of calculation, and that an individual cannot willingly disassociate from others within in its own state without themselves disassociating from their own state. This is also how much of the difficulty arises, for a member of a society is put into great distress when to states they are in issue contradictory laws. This is why I favour the last method, which avoids the problem as much as possible on the states, and minimises discord when such conflicts become unavoidable. For indeed, they can become unavoidable if an individual resolves to simultaneously follow the associate with two states in a state of contradiction. I would propose first two types of societies. Some societies are formed by geographical association, and others by common interest. It is possible that societies may be both, but it is one foremost, in all likelihood. For a geographic society is one in which the members reside and exist in close proximity, such that they either do meet or could meet regularly and often, and indeed should. Societies of interest are closer to sub-societies, being unbound by physical proximity, and instead bound in some way tied with the soul, or the mind. It follows then that there is a special sort of state for each type of society, since societies form states. States in the more political sense tend form around geographical societies, and I would continue that trend, for I con- T H E E P OC H J OU R NAL sider it most conducive for dispute resolution to know and be familiar, as friends , with those who make up the society which one might come in conflict with due to other societies one might be in. I would recommend making political stats as small as possible indeed, or, if they must be large, making the large one weak in making law, which becomes more controversial simply by virtue of being exposed to greater numbers of members of its society. Then, a more true democracy might be achieved. I would also avoid making the state a society unto itself, with so many members that it must provide law prescribing a separate set of actions unto members of the state. For when the members of the state are members of their geographical society, they may more easily perceive the feasibility of the law they prescribe, and how alive it would be. For an ideal law would be universally accepted in its society and outside of it, and it would be most alive. But the essence statecraft is not the ideal law though, but instead, the ideal society. For the law flows from society and lives through it, and a bad but universal law would still be bad. Thus it is better that the society be good, to its members and others, and the members of the state should reflect that, as individuals recommended by society to provide society with law. Photo: Public Domain When I read The Federalist Papers, I found the authors' criticism lackingand overly optimistic. The authors dismiss complaints about the Constitution with a hand-wave instead of a rebuttal. I found this frustrating, as many of these weak arguments were on topics that concern me, as a citizen, primarily regarding the representation of the people and the limits to the powers of government. This discussion will analyze the two problems of factionalism and tyranny, and their solutions, or the lack thereof, as presented in The Federalist Papers. First we will criticise Article 1 Section 2 of the Constitution. It lays out the structure of the House of Representatives, where each state will elect representatives proportional to the population. The proportion specified is one representative for no more than 30,000 citizens. However, the House is in charge of itself-it may alter itself and change the proportion of its own representation. By increasing the proportion, we can prevent the number of Representatives from expanding to an unmanageable size as the population grows. The changing proportion is necessary, for without it the system could become unbalanced. The necessary balance is that the representatives must be raised to a certain number in ' order to guard against the cabals of a few; and that, however large it may be, they must be limited to a certain number, in order to guard against the confusion of a multitude. In other words, the government must be accessi- ble and easy for the citizens to comprehend. From the perspective of the legislature, having so many people to convince to vote one way or another on any issue would be a nightmare. The House is intentionally designed for this inefficiency, compared to the Senate. The Senate 's representation is two per state, which guarantees that this branch will always be smaller and thus more manageable and efficient than the House. It is the Senate's job to represent the States, not the people, which is why the number of representatives is not influenced by the population. There must be an upper limit on the number of Representatives to limit the inefficiency of the House and prevent the confusion of the people. With too many Representatives there would be no incentive to vote based on the needs of the nation as a whole---each Representative's congressional district would be so small that local concerns would override a national perspective. With too few Representatives, the number of citizens each Representative represents would be so great, that the Representatives would have so little attachment to their constituents that they would not consider the possible harms done to their constituents. Thus, there must also be a lower limit to the number of representatives. A balance between these two extremes is necessary to maintain a proper representation of the people. The members of the legislature would always want to be as efficient as possible, to increase their ability to pass legislation. Thus, the House VO L UME X II , I SSUE I I WI NTE R 20 19 �i of Representatives' goal would be to decrease its membership as much as possible. This would lead to a disconnect between the Representatives and the represented. Instead of prioritizing efficiency, the intention of the House should be to keep the most proper proportion possible to the people. Once there is a separation between the Representatives and the represented, the Representatives no longer care for those they represent. There would be no way to convince the House to return to a proper proportion aside from revolt, except perhaps the interference of another governmental branch. If another governmental branch had such a power to interfere this would make the one a proxy of the other. The loss of appropriate proportionality could happen by accident, if the House does not keep up with the changing population. This would be without any intention to harm the system or silence the voice of the people. The Representatives must be self-aware and mindful of their feelings towards those they represent. If they begin to feel a disconnect from either the citizens or from the nation, they must attempt to adjust the proportion of representation. The loss of appropriate proportionality might also be born of malice. In this case, the ability for the House to change its own representation becomes a major threat to the nation. Imagine that the House has been compromised by a faction. A faction is " a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interest of the community." Stretching this definition, let's one say that any group of citizens that are united working towards a commongoal could be a faction. The distinction between my definition and James Madison's is that the goal of a faction isn't necessarily evil. For example, these groups may be rival political parties, each working towards the suppression of the other. This is the end goal of any political party, or faction , or any group of like-minded citizens that wish to challenge the status quo: to make the alternative out to be the greatest evil one could THE EPOCH JOURNAL conceive of. Factionalism does not lead to productive discourse among the citizens, nor does it produce leaders with a love of truth and justice. Factionalism only leads to the separation of citizens and the collapse of the system as a whole.Given thatfactions are so dangerous, how should society deal with them? Madison says: "There are two methods of curing the mischiefs of faction: The one, by removing its causes; the other, by controling its effects. [... ] There are again two methods of removing the causes of faction: The one, by destroying the liberty which is essential to its existence; the other, by giving to every citizen the same opinions, the same passions, and the same interests." The first method goes against the principles of liberty. The second method is impossible. Madison also says that the unequal distribution of property among the people is enough to cause factions, for the rich and the poor classes emerge. Madison concludes from this, that, "The inference to which we are brought, is, that the causes of faction cannot be removed; and that relief is only to be sought in the means of controlling its effects." The effects of factions are civil unrest, violence, and the eventual collapse of the state. When the faction is in the minority the only way for it to gain power is to upset the system. When it is in the majority it keeps power by adjusting the system to maintain its status and oppress any new factions. In a small, pure democracy, where each citizen represents himself, there can be "no cure for the mischiefs of faction." The United States is not a democracy. It is a republic, where one sends a representative in his place to make decisions for him. For Madison, this is a solution to factionalism, but in my opinion, this solution only worsens factionalism. Madison believes that a republic will refine the people 's ideas by processing them through a representative. This takes the burden of decision off of the people, so they are less likely to fall into factions. I believe that the republic's structure promotes the development of factions rather than limiting their effects. The people should be divided into many classes, as Madison desires, to lessen the influence of any one faction over another. These factions become political parties, each with their own leaders who speak for them. This may initially prevent parties from gaining power, but it would not be long before the parties realize that they might appeal to a wider range of people. They might do this by compromising or generalizing their views, in the hopes of receiving a larger voice when it comes time to vote. In general, three types of parties would arise: the Progressives pushing to change the status quo, the Conservatives wishing to preserve it, and the Reactionaries attempting to roll back changes that have already been made. Each citizen would filter and prioritize their concerns, so they could decide these three parties best represents their views. For example, a citizen may desire social progress, while also preferring a conservative economic policy. The citizen would decide one is more pressing to decide which party they would side with. But this process of individual compromises to choose a party means that the individual perspectives are considered less and less. The House of Representatives is meant to act as a check to factionalism within the nation. But if the House is taken over by a majority belonging to a faction, that party may pass a bill fixing the proportion of representation to their benefit. This problematic situation assumes, as Madison desired, that all branches of government are able to regulate themselves. While it is necessary that the members of one branch not be able to name the members of another, lest that second branch be no more than an offshoot of the first, the will of each department over itself needs to be, in some way, checked. Without a wide-reaching and strictly enforced system of checks and balances, a single party taking a majority in a single branch might seize the power of the entire government. The main protection against this in The Federalist Papers is to have as many political parties as possible. If no party can gather enough support to become a majority, there is no threat to be found in them. Once even a simple majority is reached, however, all those who are not a member of the majority are at risk of being powerless, with no voice in the government's decisions. With many parties available, the people would find themselves so divided that it would be impossible for a single group to gain full control over the House. This division of the people should be great enough to prevent factionalism, but not so extreme that it would encourage people to desire independence from the United States. This sort of protection against factionalism is the crux of many of the arguments in The Federalist Papers. I feel this argument is weak, because there is no system laid out to ensure that this variety will be present in the system-there is nothing stopping the parties from becoming like the three general parties described above. Concerns like those I present are all too often dismissed in The Federalist Papers by saying that there would be so many people voting and running for office that they should have no issue selecting only the best of the lot. The authors compare the United States to far smaller republics, claiming that because these small republics can avoid voting a corrupt person into power, our larger population and larger number ofrepresentatives would drown out the voices of the corrupt. The Federalists argued that a larger range of people wouldn't bring about more corrupt individuals, it would bring about more security against them by diluting their influence further and further. The only way this could fail would be if even these intelligent voters were somehow tricked into voting for a faction. In contrast, I believe, that the potential for factional deception makes it even more important to have a system to ensure that large po1itical parties are broken into many smaller ones. Without measures to prevent the consolidation of political parties, there is nothing to stop one of the more moderate groups from appealing so generally that it can guarantee itself to hold a majority of the powers of government. There is again nothing to stop this party from guaranteeing its victory by changing the way the House represents the people. There is nothing to stop this party from focusing on its own success rather than the values of the people who elected it into power. The factionalism threatening the government does not have to be against the people from the inception of the party, it may just as well corV O LU ME X II , I SSUE I I WI NTE R 2019 I I I I I I I �I Ii 11 rupt itself over time out of a lust for power. at least, not in proportion to the way they apply to But what kind of solution can exist for the other branches of government. Furthermore, the problem of factions rising out of political par- the abilities of the Congress as laid out in Article ties? John, Jay, and Madison made it clear that I Section 8 of the Constitution are far-reaching there can be no way to prevent the causes of fac- and, in some cases, exactly the same powers that tionalism, but there may be a way of maintain- one should never allow a faction to control. ing or controlling the effects. In doing this, we The job of the Legislative branch is to must maintain the same sort of standards held draft the laws of the nation for the Executive when considering their prevention, that is, our branch to approve and execute. The power of methods cannot encroach on either the liberties the Presidential veto is insufficient should more or freedoms of the people. One solution might be than 2/3 of the Congress be compromised by a to limit how many seats in the House a party can faction. Should this ever happen, one might as hold. But if many people vote for this party, this well consider saying that the powers of governsolution would violate their freedoms. Any solu- ment have been collected within a single branch. tion like this is anti-democratic. The ability to override a veto is more powerful As an alternative solution, the limitations than the veto itself. Its purpose is to pass a bill could instead be placed on the candidates, as this that the President may not approve of. The veto might restrict the ability of one person to influ- is asking the Congress to reconsider or revise its ence too many of their peers. For example, we proposal, the override is Congress forcing what might set rules controlling how candidates can should not progress to progress. Should the abilinteract with other states' Representatives, how ity of the Congress to override a veto be revoked, they canvass, etc. The issue with this solution is a bill may either be delayed until the President is that the eligibility and the election of the candi- out of office or let fail after its first rejection. If dates are controlled by each of the states, not the the President's concern with the bill is something federal government. If the federal government that can be revised without much change, why imposed restrictions on how the states organize not consider it the same as any new bill that might their elections, this would limit the states' auton- come across the President's desk? The Congress omy. Even if the states themselves tried to impose already has the ability to try the President for a this solution on themselves, the question remains, crime or remove him from office, should the situhow can any government limit the ways in which ation ever be so dire; the ability to override the its citizens interact with their candidates without Executive branch is unnecessary, if not tempting encroaching on their liberties? the prospect of tyranny. In summary, there appears to be no way This threat of Legislative usurpation to limit the effects of factions without resorting to may go unnoticed by many, but as Madison says, authoritarianism in one form or another. In a pure "One hundred and seventy-three despots would democracy, limiting a faction would directly limit surely be as oppressive as one." The abilities of the freedoms of the people. In a republic, limiting the House should be either controlled by the other political parties indirectly limit the freedoms of branches or redistributed to a far greater extent. the people, by limiting those who represent them. For example, the Senate might determine how Taking this to be the case, that political parties the House should represent the people, or that the must be present in the system, I want to now con- House's proposed changes to the way it represider what could be done if res ad triarios venitsents the people must be approved by the Senate if a faction has taken the House, what is the last or the Executive branch. These come with their line of defense against the usurpation of the other own worries, in the first case that the Senate may branches of government? The system of checks have already been corrupted, and as a result will and balances does not appear to apply as thor- adjust the House to make it more susceptible to oughly to the Legislative branch as it should, or usurpation. In the second case it may be thought that the Executive branch having a greater influence over the affairs of the House may also open the door to tyranny. There may be no way for the system to exist without being at risk of tyranny. The consolidation of power seems unavoidable, unless the entire population can be of one impossibly perfect mind. The United States is destined to fall into the hands of factionalism, and no amount of inefficiency through increased amounts of representatives can prevent this. Politicians must always belong to one party or another, and every party that exists is already or will become a faction. The nature of our government is a flawed one, and the only remaining question to ask is how effective it could be in this state. The goal of the United States government is to be a system that represents the people, as well as the individual states. An abundance of freedoms must be available to the people, else the system will lead to authoritarianism, such as the monarchy it is trying to break free from. These freedoms, however, will lead to factionalism, since the republics brings them about in the form of political parties. The system put in place, then, must obtain an almost impossible balance between freedom and restriction. Even the Founding Fathers had to admit that there has not yet been a system of government comprehended that is "able to discriminate and define, with sufficient certainty, its three great provinces, the legislative, executive, and judiciary; or even the privileges and powers of the different legislative branches." This is not to say that one should be content with the current system or that one should work to destroy all government. It should encourage us to do as Hamilton says in the ninth paper, to acknowledge our failings as a nation in our times of success and search for ways to improve our government in times of failure. Stagnancy and inflexibility will lead to the usurpation of one branch or another, giving way to tyranny and despotism. Factionalism cannot be defeated in a single motion, but by the changing representation of people it may be kept at bay. The representatives must change in proportion and amount to shadow the people, keeping the one in lockstep with the other, never allowing themselves to become disconnected from their neighbors nor their countrymen. I I THE EPOCH JOURNAL VOLUME XII, ISSUE I I I WINTER 2019 �December 2018 was the first time I went to the polls. I was somewhat aware that my vote wouldn't make much of a difference. But I went anyway. Because deep inside, like every other human being on this planet, I wanted my opinion to matter. Regardless of how corrupt the political sphere was, I wanted to have the same privilege that my parents once had, in choosing the people who ran our country. The concept of unfair elections isn't exactly a new introduction to Bangladesh. As long as I can remember, there has always been a degree of corruption surrounding elections in the country. " Go to the polls early, otherwise your vote might be stolen!" was a warning I often heard adults give each other. Except, the atmosphere surrounding the December 2018 election was completely different. Everyone knew which coalition was going to win, well before the voting even began. There were reports of voting booths shutting down well before the officiated closing time. "Allegations of voting irregularities including polling booths closing for "lunch breaks", voters being turned away, and ballots being counted unrealistically quickly were widespread. In fact, many voters reported that they were turned away directly, upon being told that their votes have already been cast." - The GuardTHE EPOCH JOURNAL ian [ 1] Despite the reported irregularities, news sources that seemed to have highlighted the unreliable election results were mostly international. The ruling coalition (and the current Prime Minister, Sheikh Hasina) won 288 out of the 300 seats in Parliament. "That kind of margin of victory - 96 percent - was a result one might expect in a place like North Korea, not a democratic nation such as Bangladesh, " states an article from The Washington Post. [2] Being compared to North Korea is not where I expected to see Bangladesh in my 20s. Of course, there are other factors to take into consideration. Unlike the former, the latter has a fast growing, free market economy (among the fastest in the world)[3]. It also exercises more freedom of media/press; even though incidents like the arrest of photojournalist Shahidul Alam[4] do somewhat challenge that claim. However, one factor is certain: as far as living standards go, Bangladesh has seen positive changes. Ironically, the autocratic government has actually contributed to a more stable economic environment. The more democratic Bangladesh of the early 2000s was marred by frequent, violent strikes that severely hampered economic activity. In recent years, Bangladesh has not only seen more stability, but also better infrastructure; including an improved public transportation system (with a citywide metrorail based in Dhaka, set to launch in 2020) . Load shedding, i.e, frequent electrical power shutdowns, has reached an all-time low. Both the RMG (ready-made garments) sector, a principal source of the country's foreign exchange earnings; as well the public sector, has seen yearly increases in wages. With this turn towards a more comfortable living environment, it is easy to perceive that perhaps, a democracy is not the ideal governing system for Bangladesh at the moment. In Plato's Laches, Socrates throws out a rhetorical question, asking whether the vote of "one who had been trained and exercised under a skilful master" would be worth more than the votes of all four individuals engaged in the dialogue. He further follows up this claim with the question: "And for this reason, as I imagine, -because a good decision is based on knowledge and not on numbers?" [5] To a certain extent, Socrates' claim in Laches does hold true. For a democracy to function well, the members of the democratic state need to obtain a certain level of political literacy. This is something that appears to have been integrated into the social and academic environment of the United States. In Bangladesh, not so much. In fact, the Bangladeshi social structure (excluding political families) actually discourages individuals from becoming politically involved, particularly due to the violence that accompanies it. On the other end of the spectrum lies a large population living in poverty; members of this demographic cannot possibly afford the privilege of political literacy. Therefore, a stable democracy may be well beyond Bangladesh's reach at the moment. While speaking in favor of China's autocratic government, New York Times columnist Tom Friedman raises a valid claim: "One-party autocracy certainly has its drawbacks. But when it is led by a reasonably enlightened group of people, as China is today, it can also have great advantages. That one party can just impose the politically difficult but critically important policies needed to move a society forward in the 21st century." [6] Another state that has clearly benefited from its autocratic governing system is Singapore. Since being expelled from Malaysia in 1965, it became a global economic miracle, primarily due to the efforts of its first prime minister, Lee Kuan Yew. And while Bangladesh is certainly no Singapore, returning to a more balanced democratic state is likely to hamper its current stability and economic growth. The real risk rises in the long run; when we find out the extent to which the ruling coalition exploits their unchallenged power. [1] Safi, Michael, and Oliver Holmes. "Bangladesh PM Hasina Wins Thumping Victory in Elections Opposition Reject as 'Farcical'." The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 31 Dec. 2018 [2] Joanna Slater, Azad Majumder. " Analysis Why Bangladesh's Landslide Election Result Is Bad for Its Democracy." The Washington Post, WP Company, 31 Dec. 2018 [3] "Real GDP Growth: Annual Percent Change." imf.org, International Monetary Fund, 3 Oct. 2019 [4] "Shahidul Alam: Bangladesh Is 'an Autocracy by Any Means'." Bangladesh I Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 20Apr. 2019 [5] Source: http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/laches. html [6] Friedman, Thomas L. "Our One-Party Democracy." The New York Times, The New York Times, 9 Sept. 2009 VOLUME XII, ISSUE I I WINTER 2019 �THE ORIGINS OF SOUTHERN SOCIALISM Southern Identity and Independence ... But Not the South You're Thinking Of Photo: Public Domain Writing about Yemen forces you to take your disgust with the conflict and channel it into reasonable thoughts, and suggestions about paths forward. It also pits you against an ever-evolving timeline. This essay, which I wrote a few weeks before it was sent to be published, lost the battle against time. Between writing and printing, a Saudi-negotiated cooperative governance agreement between the STC and Hadi Government in the south has been enacted. I am skeptical that it will hold. However, this article provides some interesting information that I hope can help readers understand what's happening in Yemen, or how they should approach studying Yemen. NOTE FROM THE AUTHOR: I'm not sure which south you were thinking of, but I'm thinking of south Yemen. Maybe you know about it, but you most certainly know about northern Yemen, where Saudi bombing campaigns against a Zaydi ethnic rights grouptumed-govemment/militia has elicited strong public outcry. You might even know about the branches of Daesh and al-Qaeda in Yemen, whose scrimmages, and sometimes humorous name-defamation campaigns, against one another, have received ample media attention in the past months. However, the Southern Transitional Council (STC), the organization leading the southern Yemen separatist movement, has not T H E EPOCH J OU RNAL received the same attention by the U.S. (and you will see that this qualifier is important). In the past few weeks, there have been some articles published about them, as their recent uprising in southern Yemen's largest city, Aden, has earned them prominent places in the New York Times, and other leading publications. But this is a great departure from typical Yemen coverage, which lacks any detailed mention of the STC, or the southern cause. There is also little evidence that the U.S. pays any more attention to them, despite their role in southern Yemeni politics, which is deemed pivotal by most scholars of Yemen; their demonstrated capability to organize and perform government functions, military actions, and protests, and their historical significance that is as solid as the Houthis. This failure falls in line with the century-old habit of worldleading countries to not listen to smaller party's needs, and will only continue to degrade stability, and chances for peaceful reunification in Yemen if it is not corrected. Through this article, I hope to describe the southern separatist movement and Southern Transitional Council, and make the case that the STC, along with the countless other factions in Yemen whose voices get out-shouted until they can out-shout, needs to be taken seriously by those relevant in international decision-making on Yemen. On January of 1839, the British Empire conquered Aden, and made it into a major port on the British East India Company's Britain-India shipping route. This, coupled with Ottoman domination over the north, effectively ripped Yemen into two, as nearby tribesmen and villagers from most of the south flocked to Aden to take part in the lucrative new industries, and allowed Britain to expand their control from Aden to the surrounding areas (Gavin, 1975). The economic pull for Yemenis was prominently the availability of seasonal work in Aden. Troves of Yemeni seasonal workers moved to Yemen throughout the colonized period (18391967) to work at the docks, oil refineries, and construction of the new amenities and housing developments needed by the Colony. As the colony grew older, and the opportunities for colonial employees expanded, the availability of work and quality of life available to seasonal Yemeni workers shrank, destroying the livelihood of many Yemenis. Despite this angst against the problems which Yemeni workers faced, a political culture fitting for real opposition did not exist, partly due to the low education rate in Aden. However, the demand for educated workers, which was much higher than the amount they could import, forced the British Government to build schools in Aden. As much as the Colony tried to recruit neutral teachers to Aden, the mere access to truth (even if it was diluted with propaganda) sparked outrage in the newly-formedAdeni intelligentsia. In 1946, students protested against the absence of the Arab Leagues' founding day in the list of public holidays, showing their capability to think and act freely, instead of serving as agents of the Colony, as the Colony intended. Alongside strides in labor rights and union power which were made with the support of these new students, the first Adeni newspaper was published, political power made its way into Yemeni hands, and organizations made in conjunction with the Colonial administration, like unions and legislative councils, swayed toward what I read to be the roots of a socialist government in Aden. In the years following the student protest, two major strikes that led to monumental changes in Aden's domestic worker culture took place. In reaction to the strike of 1946 (a strike by the shipworkers in response to taxes imposed on workers in response to an economic downturn) the Colony established a Labor Office in Aden, and out of necessity, became friendlier to the Unions. In reaction to the strike of 1956, which saw more than 7,000 workers strike over living standards, conditions of employment, and desire for modern labor standards; 47-hour workweeks, vacation time, sick pay, and free medical attention were provided to most workers involved. This strike also increased the demand for union representation among workers, increasing the number of labor unions in Aden from eight to twenty-four within the year. These new unions, who represented a new political movement in Aden, attracted the aforementioned intellectuals, who became union leaders. These unions quickly swelled to power through their political presence: making their way into space previously dominated by organizations loyal to the Colonies; and making alliances with several Adeni revolutionary groups, while hindering the operational ability of Colonial legislative bodies to bolster their power. The consequence of this was the eventual expulsion of the British in southern Yemen by the hands of several liberation groups, and the foundation of a divided Yemen. The two governments that came from this were the Yemen Arab Republic, which is out of the scope of this article being in the north, and occupied the bulk of north-western Yemen; and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY), a Marxist government whose rise came out of the trade unionism which rallied all factions of Yemeni society, who reigned over the southern coast of Yemen, and most of the eastern in-lands. Their territory, which occupies similar territory to what the modem STC seeks to occupy, stretched from Yemen's furthest south-western tip through Aden, al-Mukalla (another important port city), the core of the Hadhramaut territory, and to the borders of Oman, and then up to a vast, arid border with Saudi Arabia. V O LUME XII , I SSUE I I W I NTE R 20 1 9 �I In the context of the Cold War, control over the ports of Aden and al-Mukalla, and their surrounding coastlines were invaluable, and this value was comprehended early by the Soviet forces. Both the Soviets, and China, around this time, were eager to fortify their new Navy's presence in the Suez Canal and Indian Ocean, protect their oil field's Sea Lines of Communications (which ran through the Suez Canal), and increase communication and trade with their Asian allies. Seeing both the creation of the PDRY from the expulsion of the British, and seeing the subsequent domination of the Marxist National Front for the Liberation of South Yemen, the two communist states were able to invest heavily in both Yemen's businesses, infrastructure, military, and agriculture, with an emphasis on those that were near the sea. Further, the two countries accepted military and diplomatic delegations into their countries, and the Soviet Union especially provided military advice through Cuban proxy advisors, working to secure the strategically placed island of Socotra as a quiet naval base (Creekman, 1979). Without going into Yemeni history since the 70s, one can deduce that the Soviet Union, in particular, implanted itself into the fabric of southern Yemeni society, bringing its strain of socialism with it. Through the calm of post-unification in the 90s, the simmering of Zaydi/Sunni relations in the 2000s, and the boil of post-Arab spring Yemen, these socialist and southern-separatist tendencies have remained present. Although socialism is not as strong today as separatism is, socialism's discouragement of religious governance made its way into the center of southernseparatist leader's worldviews, and is behind a lot of separatist's distrust for the current Yemeni government. Further, the longtime physical separation of the country keeps the culture divided between southerners and northerners. Even though the Capital's placement in a central location (Sana'a) outside of traditionally southern land, many southerners see northerners as others. A prominent Yemeni activist describes herself in her Twitter biography as a "southerner fascinated THE EPOCH JOURNAL with the north". Throughout the last two decades, in reaction to the distraction of resources held by the legitimate government, now based in Aden, a need for governance has arisen in the south. Various armed groups, and international aid agencies have tried to fill this role by imitating different parts of government, but none have been able to span the entire non-Houthi occupied territory, nor provide the full array of resources necessary for southern and eastern Yemenis to live appropriately. For similar reasons, tribes are not capable of providing a patch-work government to the south. It is likely these conditions that caused the southern separatist movement to emerge publicly, then form into the STC in response to the dismissal of the Governor of Aden (now-president of the STC, al-Zubaidi). THE STC TODAY The STC of today has proven itself capable of competent military action, organizing a government, and overpowering its main competitor, which is the legitimate government run by Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi (the Hadi Government). The current leadership is made up of several governors and former-ministers, who seek to use the council's influence, and security forces, to secede from Yemen. Since 2017, their competition with the Hadi Government has been profound, taking over the government seat of Aden from the Hadi Government several times, most recently in August, which forced the Hadi Government to relocate (al-Arifi, 2019). The STC has demonstrated its governing capabilities in various ways. They run council meetings across the country. Their media arm uses social media, TV, and their website to produce decent English-language material that has an international reach. They can organize pro-STC protests in Yemen, and the U .S., alike. They respond to most terrorist attacks, attacks by the Houthis, and UN actions, with a statement, published in both English, and Arabic. Al-Zubaidi visits hospitals, schools, and villages, and congratulates students on getting high test scores on live television. As far as public information shows STC 's arms and funds come from the UAE. The alliance with the UAE comes from their mutual distrust of the Hadi Government, and in particular their domination by the islamist Isiah party, which the UAE/STC suspect have been aspiring with the Houthis to destabilize the country (Kalin & Ghantous, 2019); and the UAE's desires to access Yemen's natural resources, and compete with Saudi Arabia in being a regional leader. This pits them against the Saudi Government, who has the same desires, but supports the Hadi Government. It is worth noting that many of the arms provided to the STC by the UAE are U.S . manufactured, despite the U.S. 's efforts to keep our weapons in the hands of those who we sell them to (FOX 43, 2019). The STC also seems to see the importance of winning over public opinion through diplomatic efforts. They are constantly meeting with envoys from states (mainly China and Russia), and NGOs (ranging from UNICEF to local ones), but also frequently send envoys abroad, and have even begun to open make-shift diplomatic missions to other nations. They even have an office in Washington D.C., from which their U.S. advocacy campaigns are operated. The southern separatists have also rekindled a relationship that stretches back to their liberation from the British: their friendship with the Russians. Earlier this year, the STC's website announced that an envoy of their own visited Russia, while the Russian Ambassador to Yemen met with STC leadership in Aden, with the STC President Al-Zubaidi announcing that they "look forward to develop [sic] a strategic relationship with Moscow to ensure meeting the right of the people of the South to resolve their cause and will, as well as for ensuring the regional stability[ ... ]" that "there was a collective agreement on the goal of a credible political solution, including a permanent cease-fire based on the Stockholm Agreement [... ]" and finally, that they "look forward to the day when we can reestablish diplomatic relations between our two countries in our capital Aden." (STC-Aden, 2019) This relation- ship seems to have developed further through Russia's meetings with the STC's patron, the UAE. WHY SHOULD THE U.S. CARE? Where the tension between the STC and Hadi Government; the UAE and Saudi Arabia; and Russian, Chinese, and American interests will lead this conflict is unknown. However, looking at it from the perspective of somebody concerned with supporting U.S. interests, there must be some effort made to ensure the possibility of STC cooperation with the U.S. The first reason, which I will mention but not delve into, as an appropriate discussion of the subject would take more time than I have, is that there is a trend in Yemen's circular history of peace talks, and alliances breaking down due to the omission of important parties. We saw it with the British, when their failure to take the interests of Yemeni workers and leaders into account opened the door for their exit. We saw it in the 70s, when unification talks broke down due to the protest of tribes who were not included in the talks. I would argue that we see it in the popularity of al-Qaeda and IS-Yin Yemen, who feed off of failures to provide human security to villagers and tribes. We don't want to see that happen with the STC. I'm certain that this is partly behind Russia's sudden interest in the south again. If their goal is to build their relationship with Saudia Arabia, support Iran, and regain some nominal control of the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean, or at least keep it friendly, it is necessary to prevent a hostile Arabian Peninsula. The same can be said of China. It is critical that we, as invested players in Yemen's war, do what we can to learn from Yemen's history to not repeat the failures which have repeatedly led to the suffering of the Yemeni people, and instability in the area. The second reason is perhaps more important, especially to parties who have been vocal about the Yemen War: friendliness with the STC can provide us, and our allies, with the opportunity to provide aid and economic development to VOLUME XII, ISSUE I I WINTER 2019 �11 more areas in Yemen. We have seen, through the work of the SMEPS, a Yemeni-run economic and social development program, that meaningful development can happen in secure areas during the war. SMEPS, and the Social Fund for Development in Yemen, have provided emergency healthcare services, supported farmers through micro-grants and best-practice training, and has been received positively by organizations spanning from USAID to UNDP. The Hadi Government has its own development organization, although its results haven't been as stellar. Support of Yemeni-run aid groups, like SMEPS, can help keep some aspect of life stable during war-time, and nominally improve the quality of life for Yemenis in the areas impacted by SMEPS. For example, SMEPS has taken a particular interest in sustaining the Yemeni coffee industry. Coffee has been, for a long time, one of Yemen's staple products, and was responsible for much of Yemen 's economic success in the past. Many would argue that coffee production part of Yemen's identity (Khan, 2018). SMEPS, with the help of USAID and UNDP, was able to "mitigate the impact of the current crisis on local citizens and assist their revival using local systems, capacities, and institutions to gradually resume and scale-up service delivery," and "revive livelihoods and basic services for people, increase their awareness on using new technologies, increase employment and livelihoods opportunities and to address food insecurity and reviving [sic] local agricultural and fish sector through the support of value chains." Through this project, SMEPS was able to engage 500 farmers, across western Yemen, in this project (SMEPS, 2018). Supporting projects like these have myriad benefits for the U.S., and Yemen. These projects keep the local economy engaged, and allows Yemenis to shape their country's economic development themselves, with the advice of USAID and other international organizations. They could theoretically increase inter-regional unity through economic development, supported by the fact the SMEPS has been able to work with farmers in both Houthi, and Hadi Government-run THE E P OCH J OURNAL areas. Finally, since we have seen that al-Qaeda in Yemen recruits youth through appealing to the lack of economic opportunity, and underdevelopment, among other problems, working to alleviate the causes of these woes would undermine al-Qaeda's recruitment capability, and achieve one of our major objectives in the Middle East-defeating terrorist organizations. Utilizing governing structures with deep ties to various communities, who are not notoriously corrupt and proponents of human trafficking, is a great way to expand our development initiatives in Yemen. The STC is qualified by meeting the first criterion, and by meeting the second, which is evident in their focus on human rights, and lack of evidence showing that they profit off of the same illicit trades as the Houthis do. Whether this be through working with the STC to allow the operation of these programs in territories controlled by them, or using partners who are allied with the STC, like the UAE, to set up an STC-run development program, pursuit of this opportunity could allow us to expand our reach in the south and east of Yemen. The third, and final, reason is that we don't know what will happen in Yemen. If the STC is capable of repeatedly taking over Aden, holding congresses throughout the south and southeast, and has such widespread support from Yemenis to foreign nations, it is reasonable to conclude that they could usurp the power of the Hadi Government, and potentially rule southern Yemen. If this occurs, we do not want to be in a position where there is no potential for American engagement in the region. We already have no diplomatic contact with the north, being allied heavily with Iran, I do not think it is wise to risk putting ourselves in that same position in the south. Avoiding this can take two forms: using our diplomatic prowess to mediate some agreement between the Hadi Government and the STC, or using a variety of channels to keep on friendly terms with both the STC and Hadi Government. The former seems more efficient, especially if you subscribe to Clausewitz's doctrine of conflict tending toward the extremes. A power- sharing agreement should be struck, with the goal of allowing each group the ability to accomplish their missions insofar as they do not require the devastation of the other, and create avenues for conflict mediation between the two groups. It will be messy, require a lot of oversight, but at the end of the day, it is necessary. This will also create a stronger front against the Houthis. CONCLUSION This essay, which has discussed the Southern Transitional Council and its colonial roots, demonstrates the necessity of understanding the country's history, various militias, armies, and governments, and ever-evolving dynamics in policymaking and diplomacy. Every decision must be made with all of these factors in mind, and an understanding that no conflict is two-sided, or even three-sided. Within the Houthi-Hadi conflict are layers of internal conflicts ranging from long-standing religious disagreements, to alliances and hatreds between tribes, and residual problems from Colonialism and Nasserism; coupled with a complex string of international dynamics putting that span the world, and find their way into Yemen in the form of proxy wars, and counter-terrorism operations. This essay, although only dealing directly with one organization and its relationship with the Hadi Government, touches on all of these relations. Engaging with the STC is as consequential as not engaging, in light of this, as any decision made involving this player is an action considered separately by every group involved in the country's conflict. I suggest a proactive approach, aimed at taking the policy failures in history into account to try to create some stability between the STC and Hadi, the two biggest Yemeni players south of Sana'a. However, it's also important to keep in mind that there are opinions that differ from mine on the subject of the STC. Helen Lackner, in her book "Yemen in Crisis" Argued "While some want to return to a state within the former borders [of South Yemen], [ ... ] this is unlikely to happen as internal divisions between much smaller enti- ties are at least as strong as the wish to leave the broader Republic of Yemen," especially those of the large Hadhramaut region, who she argues are "unlikely to be willing to stay in a state alongside the people from the western mountainous tribes whom they regard as petty warlords," and southern Yemeni intellectuals who "are wont to assert that ' our Southern tribes are different, they were civilised by the British for over a century." (Lackner, 2017) I cannot comment on the accuracy of her statements, since I am not fully versed in all of the interregional dynamics of the south, but I do agree that a full-on southern state would be difficult to achieve partly due to tensions like these. It is precisely for that reason that policymakers must thoroughly investigate interregional dynamics, and the ethos and missions of each group before making decisions that could change power dynamics in the country. Anecdotally, I have heard from some policymakers that the STC is not powerful, or organized enough to be consequential in any way. This might have been true a few years ago, but with the capacity that they have shown to be an effective governing and fighting organization, I think discounting them is a great error. Regardless, this conflict deserves more attention and care than it is currently receiving, even if it has become more mainstream over the past year. It warrants attention, but it also warrants studies of its cause, and calculated proactivity by those with the means to improve the situation. I hope that this all comes, but that it also is done correctly, with a historical perspective in mind. Bibliography al-Arifi, M. (2019, 09 16). Yemeni gov't designates Ataq city new interim capital. Retrieved from https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/ yemeni-govt-designates-ataq-city-new-interimcapital/1595049 Creekman, J. C. (1979). Sino-Soviet Competition in the Yemens. Naval War College Review, 7682. VOLUME X II , I SSUE I I W I NTER 2019 �FOX 43. (2019, 09 19). American weapons ended up in the wrong hands in Yemen. Now they're being turned on the US-backed government. Retrieved from FOX 43: https://fox43. com/2019/10/ 19/american-weapons-ended-upin-the-wrong-hands-in-yemen-now-theyre-being-tumed-on-the-us-backed-govemment/ Gavin, R. (1975). Aden Under British Rule 18391967. Barnes & Noble Books. International Crisis Group. (2019). Preventing a Civil War within a Civil War in Yemen. International Crisis Group. Kalin, S., & Ghantous, G. (2019, 08 2019). Explainer; Separatist takeover of Yemen's Aden leaves Saudi Arabia in a bind. Retrieved from Reuters: https://www.reuters.com/article/usyemen-security-explainer/explainer-separatisttakeover-of-yem ens-aden-1 eaves-saudi-arabi ain-a-bind-idUSKCN 1VI 0A6 Khan, A. (2018, Jul 7). Yemen's epic coffee revival: From war to hipster New York cafes. Retrieved from al-Jazeera: https://www.aljazeera. com/indepth/features/yemen-epic-coffee-revival-war-hipster-york-cafes-180706224 701165 . html Lackner, H. (2017). Yemen in Crisis. London: Saqi Books. SMEPS. (2018). Emergency Resilient Grant USAID. Retrieved from https://smeps.org.ye/smepsweb/emergency-resilient-grant-usaid/ STC-Aden. (2019). Southern Transitional Council high-profile visit to Moscow intensifies international focus on the "Southern issue" . Retrieved from STC-Aden: https://en.stcaden.corn/ news/8578 THE EPOCH JOURNAL Photo: Felix Vallotton " ... þÿ¬»»'þÿ¬¼·Ç¬½É½þÿ-Á±Â." -SOPHOCLES "But I will keep on knocking, even though I don't know where God is." L EV SHESTOV I've never been able to tell the difference between the father in the story of the prodigal son and Bromios in the Bacchae. Good king Pentheus was lost, then was found, did die, then did live, and Pentheus, like the Prodigal, was forgiven that cancer of the soul that is gravitas. Why must we always assume that the Serpent's being honest? And so, given to that primeval respect for the most cunning creature in Eden, the mob refuses to see in Bacchus' affirmation of Pentheus' transformation anything more than a taunt-the mob, perhaps not, I take it back, but certainly the philosophers. The philosophers know well that to be like God is to know good and evil, but never to dance, never to crossdress, never to create. The truth, of course (known by us fools and madmen), is that Dionysius approaches the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob most in this moment, most when he recognizes that man's political (and thus philosophical, economical, and theological) vocation is eminently mislogic. Mad king Pentheus woke from the swoon of freedom and crushed the serpent under heel when he saw that around him wasn't a cave wall, beneath him stone, but Pascal's bedside abyss. What are the political implications ofPentheus' divine insanity, of divine insanity in general? What accord have þÿ¬Ä· and þÿÀÌ»¹Â?The answer is, of course, everything. In the groundlessness of insanity, all the idols of absolute morality, all the spectres of boundedness disintegrate. In insanity man offers himself up as a whole-burnt offering to the Lord before the place where once stood a flaming sword barring us from the one tree we've always longed for; statist impositions on man's spirit cry halt before a deafening, narcissistic cry of self-affirmation in self-revelation. The Lord regards the madman and his offering but shirks the serious man and his (who is Cain but Hegel's forebear?). Man is made again man when he becomes again the feeling man (and not counting, or reasoning, or measuring man), when he shouts at the sun and dances with gods, when he gets decapitated and paraded in the palace. When man is freed from the truths that bind, personal and social, physical and metaphysical, man brought nearest to the God for whom all things are possible. Man is able to be most man with other men when he wields his humanity like an axe in a mad struggle against Ananke's ghost. Man is most man when he starts dancing. And so let God bless Pentheus the prophet, Pentheus the light of revelation to the gentiles! Let God bless all the VOLUME XII, ISSUE I I WINTER 2019 �II 1, Kierkegaard's sighing, all mere breath--they were wicked men, every one, and their struggle to fight against that necessity that forces that which has come into being from oneness to return again to a common burial was but an expression of an origiI - T HE OTHER E TERNITY nal criminality. In brief, we are to smile, we are to grin, Philosophers are quite like lobotomists; Lucretius and Walter Freeman, they're all the we are to bow our heads like submissive temple same. They want to close curtain on man's unique prostitutes before that great praetorian Necessity. with them!) tragedy. All of them want to sedate, all want to We can 't (it's always Ismene's þÿ'ÇÁ®' pacify man. David met a greater enemy than Go- do anything else. The particular dare not stand liath in Epictetus. The little ticker on the gauge of up for his rights against the general. The genour air-tank gets e'er closer to empty as we near eral, which is unpersuadable, which is uncaring, Titus Carns' abyss, but 'necessity does not allow unloving, is to be offered all the sacrifices and itself to be persuaded', and we are to smile serene whole-burnt offerings men once gave to Baal. as we suffocate (not drown, reader, would that Shestov is right when he warns us that the philosthey have us drown!) in the deep. That coquette ophers do not want us to accept the reality of our smile, that faux servility, that corruption of the suffering (just recompense for the sin of being!), oh no, they long, like Rebekkah with her boy, to erotic (alogos!), that's the key. have us bless it. Let's show whose image we're made in and spit on the lot ofthem--a pox on that II - STOCKHOLM SYNDROME first philosopher in the Garden! Anaximander's credo, 'whence things III - PRIMUM PHJLOSOPHARJ have their origin, there they must also pass away according to necessity; for they must pay penalty It's a commonplace of Marxist rhetoric and be judged for their injustice, according to the ordinance of time', is the mantra of all specula- that the philosophers have only interpreted the tive philosophy. Man, in daring to come out his world, but that it is the vocation of the proletariat mother's womb, is doomed to die. The biblical to change it--this, too, is mere breath. Marxism narrative of the Fall is foreign to this paradigmat- proves itself an exercise in radical Lucretianism. ic Greek account, to this speculative account, for The Marxist tells us that he will free us from the it begins in necessity and punishment, where the incantations of sophists, from book-worship, from biblical account begins in the free blessing of par- religion, but the Marxist, like Lucretius, breaks ticularity by the Creator. This is where the God our chains only to offer us padded restraints. The of Abraham and the God of Anaximander differ. person, the concrete person (there is no form of The original sin of Hellenic Adam isn't tasting flesh and blood and hair and shit, lest we forget) , the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and is always secondary, and the longing for someevil, is not even the milquetoast 'disobedience' of thing more than Socratic dialogue becomes yet some of the Church Fathers, but freedom itself. another philosophy dead-set on subjecting man to The individual unrepeatable gives the phantasms. God of the Greeks palpitations, then; the parBut mustn't we ask where this will to ticular is repugnant to the general, and so the submit comes from, why man ever feels the need particular should (and shall, like it or not--get to subject his fellow to something yet higher than in line!) march back on to the general to take a him after he's finished the long, daring work of whipping (we can almost hear Plato whispering breaking chains of so similar a metal? Marxists in our ear, 'it is better to suffer injustice than to don't imagine their philosophy yokes the humete it out!'). Solon's weeping, Job 's shrieking, man spirit, and Lucretius' tantum religio says the deranged who found Him in the dazzling darkness, all who left without knowing where they were going! God bless them, every one! 1, THE EPOCH JOURNAL same; all the paragons of philosophical liberation really did imagine themselves voices crying out in the wilderness. Lucretius, Plato, Marx, they all of them felt themselves little saviors--and they were! But their daring seems to have stopped short of a will to dare truly everything, seems to have stopped short of a will for Antigone's impossible things. Where did they go wrong? Why does Ananke rear her ugly head even among Bolsheviks? they have his hand flitting over the free market. This is the charitable contribution of the Christian evangel, for before the Lord came one could denounce Zeus and all his works, but now they have dressed up their Zeus as the Lord of armies þÿ(–µÅ þÿ½È¯´Äµ), and we are too timid to cast Him down. Capitalism is nothing more than Aaron's last shout before Moses comes down the mountain, a golden calf greater and grander than all the works of old Israel. It, too, submits to the necessity that does not feel anything and does not allow IV - Q UIXOTE B ETWEEN NOMOS AND PHYSIS itself to be persuaded. If the Marxist breaks your chains so he I should like to be a fool for Christ. I might give you others he thinks better (at least should like to be Don Quixote. I should like to be he's a human being!), then the Capitalist tightthe sort of person who sees reality for what it is ens the restraints, ties your legs, slices off your yet spits on it 'till it gives way, for this is imitatio tongue, shaves your head, and gives you someChristi. thing to bite down on. This is speculative philosoThe fools for Christ, as any read Ortho- phy let loose in the world like a tomcat; the gendox believer will tell you, were eminently sane eral, the dynamic forces of history and state and lunatics who threw stones at priests and ran na- society and market and supply and demand, conked through the streets of strange cities. The fools quer the particular. The particular's only recourse for Christ, as the Quixote (for the Quixote is their is to control the things he can. The particular is high priest), knew that to follow in the footsteps Epictetus ' victim; he dare not demand more--he of the Lord who became man is to follow the God has control over this, he has control over that, but for whom all things are possible, to follow the all the rest is external, necessary, and thus neutral. God for whom all custom as nature is as mere What good would it do to raise a shout? What breath, and to follow David in weeping for his good would it do, asks our dear Shestov, to anson Absalom. swer logic with claps of thunder? The fools for Christ would be more palatable to the man of our august twenty-first century VI - KIERKEGAARD 'S C REDO if the fools for Christ were just iconoclasts. We delight in iconoclasm, reader. We've transcended I will not sacrifice a single man for Roman bloodsport and thrill instead in crushing the good of all mankind. Belinsky's little letter custom--and this, my dear, is not a bad thing. The guides me where his idealism drives me mad--the issue lies in the daring of the doer. The fools for destiny of one person is more mysterious than the Christ scandalize the modem precisely because destiny of mankind in general. I will follow the they don't stop at custom. These fools are on a Lord for whom all things are possible, and I will crusade against the self-evident--St. Symeon save the one at the expense of the ninety-nine, of Emesa in his vita is described as a man who and I will cry out for my son Absalom, if it is the ' acted against both nature and custom' --even af- last thing I do. ter they ' ve followed Lucretius and 'dared to trust their senses'! VII - PHAEDRUS BY THE S EA V - N EOPAGANISM Once men had Zeus on Olympus, now Is there anything political in þÿ¬Ä·? Aristotle, the philosophus, says no. For the philosophers þÿ¬Ä· is the root of all ill--for bound up with VOLUME XII , I SSUE I I WI NTE R 2019 �I ate is change, is spontaneity, is a revolt against who took old Adam out of the Garden. the general and a crying out against all hope and in defiance of all reason. Here Anaximander's XI - THE C AMELS OF Uz theme comes back into our line of sight; insanJob began a god and ended a beast, provity, divine insanity, misologism, these defy the boundaries set for us on our long penal march ing Aristotle's point in nuce. Job, the man who back to the One. There is nothing political in in- would debate God, who would reprove God, ulsanity because the political must be an expression timately loses the tenacity that brought the Lord of the logical, because our lives together must_ be down from the tempest. Should we forget that bound because the particular dare not question God demanded Job keep on, that he gird himself the general What is Aristotle's nous, what is his like a man? Should we forget that Job and his practical reason, what is his moderation but an children are still rotting? Let Leviathan croak, let the forests melt like wax before a flame, let realexpression of a sort of pagan Catholic guilt? ity shimmer, shake, stumble, but let Job have his VIII - have TO TRUST y OUR S ENSES murdered children! The moral of Job is primum detestari, I don 't have the tenacity to lead you back deinde lugere, tandem ridere, sed numquam into Eden. I don't have the strength to take you to telligere (first to detest, then to abhor, at last to the land promised to Abraham. I will, though I laugh, but never to understand), not non ridere, keep for the last words silence, tell you what with non lugere, neque detestari, sed intelligere (not I tell you you. to laugh, not to abhor, nor to detest, but to undo know of the horrors erotic things. Socrates that I know the erotic things, as do you. derstand). Will Ananke allow us to speak m such You know that the horrors oflife in the world gag terms? you, that the truths which constrain hold you in vice that the 'facta' of life--blessed and sanctiXII -AT THE END OF TRAGEDY fied hortall etemity--toss you into the pit. If I am to exhort you to any course, any scheme, then let 'Remember,' says Epictetus, 'that you it be this one: fight the self-evident, the logical, are an actor in a play decided by the Author.' the formulaic, and embrace the erotic. It is only These words are a thunder-clap greater than the de profundis God could make it so that the gadfly one that set Job's to naught. We're actors, you and I. We're poor players. The tragedy of life shows had never tasted hemlock. itself, in Epictetus, to be nothing more than a sort IX - SUB SPECIE AETERNITATlS of sick performance we 're all to go along with for the benefit of some captive audience beyond the Is Oceania's twice two makes five not the flaming walls of the world. All the victims of histwice two makes four of our world? Is a com- tory, each and every one, were but actors, playing pletely external, necessary truth that does not a role taking up air, filling the stage. bend no matter how hard we might shift it any a I have a question for Epictetus, mind-different from a totalitarian imposition? Where we're players, yes? We've been pressed into thedo the fascists and þÿ¿¯ þÿƹ»Ìÿƿ¹ differ, is not ater like sailors into the Royal Navy; we' re forced into this tragedy, this drama, this play. Why Ananke the great dictator? should we go along with it, then? Why shouldn't X - THE H ATERS OF REASON we dismember the playwright? Epictetus tells us that those after improv are, in point of fact, the Socrates warns us that the worst fate to greatest slaves of all, but one would do well to befall a man is to become a mislogos, but the remember that Stoicism begins in a kowtow to heart warns us that it was ho philologos megistos Necessity. T H E E P OC H J OU R AL XIII - P EOPLE OF TRAGEDY Orpheus and Job have more in common than it seems at first blush. Orpheus, Job, they represent the same enigmatic type, 'the man of tragedy' . This man is not the hero, is not the god, is not even what any one of us would call a 'good ' man--he is something more. He is a man who wields the law of non-contradiction like an axe and demands it yield, who will accept nothing less than the capitulation of the whole cosmos for the sake of a single banality. It's only possible for all to be possible when there 's no solid ground beneath our feet. Only when we realize that the world lacks a sure foundation, only when we realize that we are falling can we begin to fly--here the words of the Psalmist, so loved by Shestov and Unamuno, fly well beyond the flaming walls of the world and ram themselves into our minds: out of the depths, o Lord, have I cried unto thee! It is in these depths that we find God, in these depths that our prayers are answered. It is de profundis Shestov can get back his son, Kierkegaard his Regina, Nietzsche his good health. When we tum a drama into a comedy, when we go off-script, we find ourselves inching ever closer to the gates of Eden. This is the supreme intuition of the private thinker, of Nietzsche, Shestov, Kierkegaard, Pascal. It is the intuition of one sunk deep in human suffering who nevertheless refuses to bow to it. It is the intuition of one who truly dares to trust their senses. This is not a call to action; there aren't words for everyone. This is a martyrdom of self to self, a sacrifice of the soul to the flaming sword at the gate of Eden. The political implications of this madness--is it madness?--are personal, existential, conditioned, hostile to the general. Each of us has his own truth, and where Plato gives you the Truth common to all, this man gives you his own knowing well that the rest of you--the mob, the crowd, but bless you, all of you, each and every one!--have flocks and flocks of truths floating high and above the imaginary suns of Greeks and Germans. I ' V OL UME X II , I SSUE I I W I N T E R 20 1 9 �POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY All That Appears Is Good BY REUBEN MORRIS Photo: Today Testing Guy Debord, active in the middle of the twentieth century, was a french marxist and a founding member of the situationist international. His contributions to this realm of political thought are important, within that sphere, and worthy of consideration. I do not set out to write of him in this way. I wish to take a work of his, the Society of the Spectacle, and describe it so that it seems like it was written about our own time and place rather than France of the 1960's. Thinking about Debord in this way, as someone who was aware of the strangeness of our times in a very general way, has helped me in forming my beliefs about the present condition. Debord identifies the spectacle as something like the focal point of all activity. It demands your gaze and is very difficult to look away from. I contend that you have already experienced it and know about as much about it as Debord can tell you. Even while trying to talk about this book without reference to its historical or political context, there is one piece of background information that should not be dispensed with. The Society of the Spectacle is a Detournement, or a Hijacking. What this means is that the content of the book is nearly all lifted from other texts, with key terms changed to fit the form of what Debord is describing. To understand this let me give as an example the first sentence of Debord's text, THE EPOCH J OU R NAL 1. The life of societies in which modern conditions ofproduction prevail presents itself as an immense accumulation of spectacles " Now, compare this with the opening sentence of Marx's Capital: " The wealth of societies in which the capitalist mode ofproduction prevails presents itself as an immense accumulation of commodities. " Aside from the idiosyncrasies of translation, these two sentences differ only in the substitution of certain nouns. Wealth in the Marx becomes Life in Debord, and Commodities become spectacles. Now is not the time to dwell on the content of this substitution, but only the fact that Debord's book is largely composed by such replacements. His writing style is to take the words of other people. Substitute some of his terminology in, and then place these thoughts in a new order. Sometimes he adds an entirely new sentence in when clarification is necessary. The whole work takes the shape of a numbered series of claims, divided into nine chapters. My writing will focus on the first three. I attempt something of my own Detournement of Debord, taking his words out of their original context and placing them in our own. One more thing before I begin. Debord himself says that the spectacle is difficult to describe. One of the reasons for this is because of how pervasive the spectacle is in our lives. If our culture has in fact been steeped in spectacle it would be hard to describe it without on some level praising it or at least using the language that was developed for the service of the spectacular. What I am saying here is essentially a warning that appears near the beginning of the book. a person, is responsible for the communications that occur between the two of you. The presence of a mediator implies separation between the two people. Otherwise they could interact directly. In this light, here is another quote. "11. To describe the spectacle, its formation, its functions and the forces which tend to dissolve it, one must artificially distinguish certain inseparable elements. When analyzing the spectacle one speaks, to some extent, the language of the spectacular itself .. " Leaving aside for now the question of what this "spectacular language" would be, let this quote serve as a guide for trying to interpret the spectacle. It is easy to fall into traps when describing this thing because we are completely surrounded by it. One mistake would to become excessively focused on a single part of the spectacle, and equate this part with the spectacular whole. Another error, more insidious, would be to attempt to describe the spectacle in a way that allows it to be understood and criticized, but end up instead with a description that is itself just another spectacle. We live in an age of the spectacle and it is difficult to speak in a way that does not appeal to this. It is important to try and get an image of what this spectacle is and how it is apprehended, even if at first this image will probably appear as just another spectacle. If I cannot describe the entire spectacle, I should start with some element that shows an important aspect of the spectacle. Debord tells us, "29... The spectacle is simply the common language of this separation. Spectators are linked solely by their one-way relationship to the very center that keeps them isolated from each other. The spectacle thus reunites the separated, but it reunites them only in their separateness" What is this spectacle, this thing that unites people who are seperate, while even in this reunion, keeps people trapped in their separation. I am reminded of Billy Joel. These people Share a drink they call loneliness. Debord would contend that this is no better than drinking alone. We all form a part of the lonely crowd, a phenomenon that is demonstrated by the loneliness people report feeling in cities. People have been forced apart by the spectacle and gaze into its center in order to interact with one another.As individuals, it is difficult to escape the edge of the spectacle, because it has forced its way into the center. In this way and in others, Spectacle has the character of centripetal force. It makes room for itself at the center of our attention while pushing all other things to the edges of our awareness. Spectacle makes room for itself and nothing else, hijacking our personal relationships and controlling our lives. Now I veer too quickly into a polemic against the spectacle. I must focus "4. The spectacle is not a collection of on its description. For this task I will bring speak images; it is a social relation between people that of something familiar and then explain it in terms is mediated by images. " of what has already been said about the spectacle. The term "Social Media" is suspiciously Here we get the spectacle as something that is related by images, and at times exempli- resonant with the phrase " a social relation befied by certain images. All the same, it is not tween people that is mediated by images. " Mein itself an image. What is the meaning of this diation, which sounds academic and uptight, besecond sentence, that the spectacle is a social re- comes media, familiar and easy to watch. Social lation mediated by images? Mediation is a rela- relations become socialization. Socializing can tion between two things that occurs by way of occur on social media. How does social media the third. To have a mediated relation to someone mediate our social life? On instagram we look means that a third person, or something that is not at many pictures of our friends, of celebrities. VO L UME X II , I SSUE I I W I NTE R 2019 �We can like these pictures and even write our responses to them. The collection of images on a site such as lnstagram is always growing, with more added constantly. No person will see more than a tiny fraction of these images. Yet each person who uses the platform will experience a distinct form of interaction with other people. Although the images are distinct for each user, the way these images present themselves as a vertical stream offering itself up for your approval or dismissal, this is a spectacle. This is just one website out of many, and surely our world is composed of much more than websites. Yet is the basic outline of what I describe applicable to more than just this site? To ask for more instances of the spectacle, first a better understanding much be reached of its character and origins. Is there anything that preceded the spectacle? Elsewhere Debord claims that the spectacle "dominates all aspects of modern life". How could this be so, especially ifwe are people who do not feel that we are being dominated. "16. The spectacle is able to subject human beings to itself because the economy has already totally subjugated them ... " This is the answer Debord gives as to the origin of the spectacle, along with an early instance of his claim that our interaction with the spectacle is one that involves our subjugation. Preceding this subjugation, there is already the dominance of people's lives by economic relationships. I do not wish for this to become a paper on Marxist economics. Yet it is impossible to speak of the spectacle without acknowledging that we are situated in a world of Capital. People work to earn a living and spend their earnings on commodities. Marx would say that because we produce things not for our own sake but so that we can earn enough money to survive, we are alienated or estranged from our work and ourselves. It is not enough just to be a person, one must also have enough to live on, you must have the means to prop yourself up in the economy. Debord calls this the transition from "being" into "having" (pp. 17). This is the underlying condiTHE EPOCH JOURNAL II tion for the spectacle to come about. To begin speaking of a spectacle we must already live in a world that is melded into the shape of an economy. People are subjected to this economy insofar as they are forced to participate in it in order to earn what they need to live. A similar process is carried out in the development of the widespread economy into the spectacle. "17. ... The present stage, in which social life has become completely dominated by the accumulated productions of the economy, is bringing about a general shift from having to appearing - all "having " must now derive its immediate prestige and its ultimate purpose from appearances This is a process that mirrors the change from "being" into "having". The key of this second transition is that the economic life takes over all functions of the social life. A complaint I have heard frequently is that there are not many places like libraries. A library is a rare example of a public place, a social place, that is not an economic place. Nearly all living activities involve money. The presence of money tints all of our actions. It is a truism to say that how much money one as largely determines your opportunities. The growth of the spectacle involves the union of money and appearances. An excellent illustration of this union is advertising. We see advertising everywhere. Returning to the example of instagram, a feature which was introduced soon after the launch of the site was the introduction of advertisements into the feed. Presented alongside the images posted by friends and celebrities are images sponsored by a corporation, hawking some product or service. Often it is difficult to distinguish these advertisements from the nonsponsored content. Advertisements as a part of life are not a particularly recent development, and they themselves are not necessarily representative of the spectacle. However, as life becomes increasingly consumed by a procession of appearances, advertisement becomes more prevalent because there are advertisements mixed into all these ap- pearances. Because the spectacle grew from the videos. I exaggerate this by saying that watching dominance of the economy, it retains the money- these videos is something like the condition of generating function of the economy. Someone, being farmed. For every video I watched, a few usually the rich and powerful, is always profit- cents of advertising revenue is generated. My ating from the mediation of social relationships tention is being harvested for a cheap price. between people. Advertising is a useful way of tracing the spectacle through life. Advertising re"24.. . The concentration of "communilies on the supposition that an advertisement will cation " is thus an accumulation, in the hands of be seen. They crop up anywhere where the gaze the existing systems administration, ofthe means of people accumulates. Debord might say that ad- which allow it to carry on this particular adminvertising is not a collection of images, although istration. " advertising uses all sorts of images to accomplish The decline of Net Neutrality was a demonstraits task. Rather, it is a social relationship through tion of the growth of the spectacle. While the inimages. Particularly, it is the relationship of ternet in its early days appeared as a space that spending money. This is a relationship that guar- would be free from the corporate control that antees separation even when people are together. had come to dominate so much of the physical To share the drink of loneliness you must have world, this illusion was soon crushed. Insofar as the money for your bar tab. the internet is a vast improvement over prior sysI am finding the task of a proper De- tems of communication, it had to be co-opted by tournement of Debord's spectacle into our times the forces most ready to wild it. Administrators challenging. Here is something anecdotal which of corporate and governmental breeds soon took might help some of what I am trying to say about complete power over this new means of comthe spectacle. I find it very difficult to focus on munication. The core of the internet is now overone thing for any length of time. There are such whelmingly corporate. Ongoing struggle against a great number of things to see. Setting out on the growth of the spectacle must occur at the vanthe work of writing is hard and distraction is very ishing periphery where the spectacle does not yet easy. In truth, I have had some desire to write have a total grasp of opinions. a paper on Debord for many months now. Al- Continuing to reference my copious consumption .ways when I sat down with half a mind to write of youtube videos, here is another quote from it, it seemed something impinged on me. Writer's Debord. block is nothing new, but if you do your writing on a computer you are subject to the spectacle in "12. The spectacle presents itself as a way that people in other times may not have something enormously positive, indisputable and been. The internet is the great generator and inaccessible. It says nothing more than "that perpetuator of spectacle. Here is a place where which appears is good, that which is good apall appearances are shown, where all things are pears. The attitude which it demands in principle shown. It was sold as something that would fos- is passive acceptance which in fact it already obter communication between people all over the tained by its manner of appearing without reply, world. I doubt that this description accurately by its monopoly of appearance. " shows what had become of the internet. It has Usually when someone is trying to sell you a fallen to the control of a few corporate masters, product they assume a cheerful tone. Consider much in the same way that media in prior decades the great privilege you have in being offered this did. Moreover, the most widely used websites all wonderful product! The statement goes someshare a similar model. Like instagram, they pres- thing like this: We are so fortunate to live in this ent an endless feed of information and images. I time of unparalleled abundance. Never before have often found myself in a loop of consumption have people had so much choice in the things as youtube continues to provide me with more they buy, and never before has the quality of life VOLUME XII, ISSUE I I WINTER 2019 I I ! �been so high! Even better, we have a full complement of pleasant images to enjoy. Wherever you tum some version of this promise manifests. For better or worse, the example of this that immediately comes to mind for me is Zizek's comments on Coca-Cola's motto, Enjoy Coke. We are commanded to enjoy coke, and this is disturbing because the corporation which gives this command is powerful enough that it may wield coercive power. There may be a threat of violence when we are told to Enjoy Coke. Everywhere there are versions of this advertisement. A common form of it is an ad that tells you to "treat yourself'. The message is to take advantage of the beautiful world of commodities in which all is well. There are parts of life that are irreconcilable with the spectacular claim that everything "which appears is good, that which is good appears". The recommended action when bad things appear is to just focus on the positive. It is suspiciously often that this focusing on the positive takes the form of some therapeutic. transaction. Continuing down the same path of how the spectacle is something which allows people to ignore the unpleasant or even exploitative things in their lives, here is yet another quote from Debord. In this section, Debord is talking about the seemingly contradictory status of a person when they are at work versus when they are in relaxation. "43. .. This worker, suddenly redeemed from the total contempt which is clearly shown him by all the varieties of organization and supervision of production, finds himself every day, outside of production and in the guise of a consumer, seemingly treated as an adult, with zealous politeness. " Shortly after, Debord likens the growth of the spectacle to an "Opium war" in the sense that the spectacle serves to silence dissent by showing people how good they have it, the sedative power of the spectacle constantly growing and expanding. The life of the consumer is an example of the movement from "having" to "appearing" which I introduced earlier. Marx speaks of the worker as someone who is uniformly downtrodden come THE EPOCH JOURNAL night or day. Debord updates this concept for his time and ours by telling of the products and sights that are now offered to the worker. During the day the worker is subject to the demands and vicissitudes of working life. When not at work, this same person can now feast on the products of accumulated labor. To say that this is a numbing force, something which prevents 'real change' and degrades a person further, would doubtless be a controversial claim. At the very least it is a delightfully bleak picture of modem life, one which is often presented. People work because they have to, so they can live. This life can be turned back into work even when someone is not working when they become a consumer. A striking feature of Debord's writing is how often he seems to repeat himself, or say things about the spectacle that hardly differ from his previous claims. The picture he creates comes together like transparent slides of images stacked on top of one another. The images vary only slightly, and over time a new image emerges. I take this to be one of the ways in which by speaking of the spectacle, it is hard not to reproduce it. Reproduction is essential to understanding the spectacle. "14. In the spectacle, which is the image of the ruling economy, the goal is nothing, development everything. The spectacle aims at nothing other than itself. " If I had to choose one of Debord's aphorisms which I thought best encapsulated what the spectacle is it would be this one. Development is the key term for. What is meant when we say 'Developed' or 'Developing' country, aside from these terms being contemptible euphemisms for wealth and poverty? More broadly put, what is it what we suppose society is developing into? The spectacle develops itself and has no goal besides this. It seeks to create not a better version of the world, but a more totalizing version of itself. Disillusionment is a process whereby people come to believe that nothing really changes. The modem cynic says its not worth voting, the parties are both the same and they will probably throw out your vote anyway. The news is printed fresh each day but draws from a completely predictable set of catastrophes, insults and banalities. All throughout this trudging process a torrential downpour of new media and sights comes down on us, more and more choices and happy distractions to take our attention from the work of the administrators, to keep us focused on an expanding spectacle. In all its expanse, in all its technological development, this spectacular thing does not change. I will close for the time being with another disturbing aspect of the spectacle, one which follows from its production of itself and nothing else. One argument that may be raised against Debord is that he fails to take into account opposition movements. Yes, we may grant to him that there are opiates for the masses, and perhaps some people partake, but how can someone say that society is unified in a common act of idol worship when we are so cracked and divided? Is the spectacle really something so strong and whole that it can survive the violence of politics and changing climates? flict takes on the character of a spectacle when the interests of the two sides essentially align. I admit that I am confused by this characterization of the spectacle. Is it not something that can be resisted? I am skeptical of claims that all people are deceived or fall victim to a single prevailing ideology. I do not believe that the spectacle is as expansive as Debord claims. One instance of the claim that the spectacle includes all conflicts is that the Soviet Union became in America something of a spectacle. At some point it no longer posed any threat, except as an appearance. The spectacle continues to expand, and may come to include all feuding sides. There may still be a few places where the spectacle has not yet reached. Consider the recent story of an American missionary who went to the Andaman islands, a place where people live who have successfully resisted all forms of European settler colonialism. When this missionary arrived attempting to spread his religion and bring back images, he was told to leave. When he refused, he was killed. This may be the only recent instance of the spectacle being stopped in its tracks. "54. The spectacle, like modern society I have fallen short of the task of describing the itself, is at once united and divided. The unity of spectacle, but I am happy that I have began. I each is based on violent divisions. But when this would like to encourage you to continue trying contradiction emerges in the spectacle, it is itself to understand the spectacle, and identify its influcontradicted by a reversal of its meaning: the ence in your life. I find this exercise helpful. The division it presents is unitary, while the unity it frivolous images we are surrounded by may be presents is divided. " more sinister than they seem. Beware all salesThe spectacle being 'united and divided' men and hucksters. Try and find unmediated sosuggests that it will be difficult to connect vary- cial contact. I hope this does not sound too much ing instances of the spectacle. I must be careful to like an empty appeal to 'get off your phone'. avoid the trap warned of by the very beginning, There is something growing all around us, and I namely the belief that the spectacle is a collection fear that it will not stop. It threatens to suffocate of images. In searching for the spectacle one must all good things. It presents itself as the only good always be mindful of the social relations that sur- left in a world of drudgery and stochastic disaster. round these images. Sometimes these social rela- I want to be more cautious of it. tions will present themselves as conflicts. Con- VOLUME XII, ISSUE I I WINTER 2019 �THE EPOCH JOURNAL VOLUME XII, ISSUE I I WINTER 2019 �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Epoch Journal Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. 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Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource Current events--Periodicals International relations--Periodicals World politics--Periodicals Economics--Periodicals Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EpochJournal_vol13_issue1 Student publication https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/270c7796a4a29770a4b0f11070f26659.pdf 2095354f8f1505a0ea5ec90f1b10c21f PDF Text Text Spring 2009 Volume III, Issue 3 �EUROPE Tumult Revisited: Greece's Riots 5 Force Fed Freedom: The March of Gay Rights 8 A Culture of Censorship 10 Chelsea Adams Erin Shadowens Valerie Blomberg ASIA & OCEANIA The Day After Democracy 15 Shikysha Adhikari AMERICAS Running on Fumes: Venezuela's Economic Crisis 19 John Vining ' AFRICA & MIDDLE EAST Bloodying the Holy Land 23 Tex Pasley 10: Tej; 11:Radicali Milano; 13: Timothy Post; 15: Jean-Francois Bauche; 16: Budha's Breakfast, rvebik; 20: Que Comunismo; 21 : Luiz Felipe da Silva de Castro; 23: Michael Ramallah; Through the Lens: Zaa. BEYOND NEWS Cameron's Corner 26 Through the Lens 27 Cameron Coates © 2009 The Epoch INFO@EPOCHJOURNAL,ORG WWW,EPOCHJOURNAL,ORG Photo Credits: Cover: Lobo Estepario; ToC: Wen-Yan King; 6: Sotiris Farmarkis, Dkilim, ASSOCIATED COLLEGIATE PRESS The Epoch is produced and distributed in Annapolis, Maryland. Please contact The Epoch for information on advertisements at info@epochjournal.org. Opinions expressed in articles or illustrations are not necessarily those of the Editorial Board or St. John's College. The Epoch Staff Founder, Editor-in-Chief Managing Editor Layout Editor Artistic Director Business Director Web Design Chairman, Board of Trustees Zachary Fryer-Biggs Tex Pasley Erin Shadowens John Vining Tyler Clegg Eric Honour Malcolm Cecil-Cockwell �Tumult Revisited: Greece's Riots Chelsea Adams Annapolis '12 IRELAND • The three largest banks in Ireland were given $7.7 billion from the Irish government, in return for partial control and dividends from bank shares. The banks, which had overseen until recently, the fastest-growing economy in Europe, were in danger of failing. DENMARK • Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen is considering switching to the Euro, a measure that will probably be put to referendum later in the year. Such a move is being considered by other countries outside the Euro Zone In response to the global recession. TURKEY • Prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan walked out of a debate with Israeli president Shimon Peres over lsraers Invasion of the Gaza Strip. The move was supported by Muslims. Including many in Turkey, but may hurt Turkey's aspirations for EU and NATO membership. For thousands of years, the Athenian Acropolis has symbolized the evolution of a government that is otherworldly. Tourists seek the whispers of the ancients in shadows of an archaic city, one which was born in a time and place clouded with the political uncertainties of a tentative city-state. What students today learn in history books about Greece seems foreign and obsolete. Stories of short-lived tyrannies, beleaguered campaigns, and wars that lasted for generations are mingled with texts from some of history's greatest "political" minds. The ardent oaths of Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Politics are buried in a cultural proclivity towards civil discontent. The Hellenic states of antiquity were warring more often than they were at peace, and the Greek nation of the twentyfirst century seems to have retained part of this inclination. Athenian newspapers from the last few months have been spattered with stories of rioting students, corrupt government officials, and growing economic instability. It is possible that this recent wave of violence is simply the culmination of a series of unfortunate events. One might wonder, however, if there is something more deeply ingrained in the psyche of the country, something that leads invariably to infighting. "History is a very sensitive matter for all G reeks, young and old," says Estantzos M avrokefalou, who lives and works in Athens. "The problem we face is that the political climate now is one of extreme controversy. Everything depends on beliefs or party tendencies that come from experiences in our history." The politics hidden behind the current conflict are as complicated as they are diverse. The conservative government under Prime Minister Costas Karamanlis of the New Democracy Party is widely unpopular, especially among Greek students and youths. Karamanlis took power in 2004, following a convincing win over leaders of the Pan Hellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) . PASOK remains bitterly at odds with the conservative party, recently releasing a statement that deemed the current government "dangerous for the country, the health and security of the citizens, and for the economy." Karamanlis has rejected repeated calls for his resignation. Among other debacles scarring his record, recent police activity in Athens and other major Greek cities has left citizens distrustful of their government's ability to protect them. The case of Alexis Grigoropoulos is just one example that has lead to wide distrust. In December of 2008, Alexis, reported to be no more than 16 years old, was shot and killed by a member of the Greek police. The story made waves in world media outlets as Athens fell into disharmony. "Everything began when that stupid cop killed a young man in cold blood," says Bil Karas, resident of Thessaloniki. Since the shooting, riots have broken out across the Hellenic Republic. Demonstrations have shaken the populous to its core. "The cop believed that the child posed a threat, so he shot him. That is just the way things go," says Apostolos, a university student studying in Athens who asked that only his first name appear in print. Alexis Grigoropoulos was reportedly demonstrating with fellow students for education reform ' when the offending officer fired into a group of the protesters and hit the boy. "I hate violence. It's not the solution, but sometimes people think it's the only way," says Apostolos. He reflects upon brutalities from both the police and Athenian citizens that have occurred as dose as 5 miles away from his residence. "There is a place near the center [of Athens] named Eksarxeia. This is where many of the riots happen. Cops are unwelcomed here. For them, it is like walking through a ghetto, but only for them. Most people think that it is dangerous, but I have to say that I have gone there for more than ten years, and nobody has hurt me." Eksarxeia is within walking distance of the Athenian Acropolis. The Greek government's response to the shooting has been a staunch vow to "work towards tougher policing in the nation's capitol and other parts of the country." It seems obvious that "more m ight" will not equal "more right," and 5 �few citizens are eager to see what reforms the government has to offer. "They seem to like the power of the uniform, and they like to use it, regardless of the consequences," says Karas. Citizens were so outraged over the Grigoropoulos incident that they retaliated with shootings of their own against the police. An upstart terrorist group in Athens known as "Revolutionary Struggle" claimed responsibility for shootings on Dec. 23 and Jan. 5. One officer was in critical condition following the shootings. The group that claimed responsibility has also been tied to attacks on the U.S. Embassy in Athens. Following the new wave of violence, police officers took to the streets, this time in a protest march of their own.They carried banners calling for peace and blared Beatles songs in an effort to build support. "Before those officers were shot, everyone hated the police. Now, most of them don't remember anything," says Apostolos. This turn-on-a-dime mentality makes it difficult to enact lasting change. Protests, riots, and demonstrations serve as convincing evidence that Greeks have something to say but have been robbed of the means to say it. Americans cannot relate---the United States calls upon its media resources to report injustices within the system. Greeks, on the other hand, seem to think that their media market has been the cause of injustice. Greek media networks are presenting much more than a simple bias. "I believe the real problem today in Greece is the media, and by that I mean Greek private television chains," says Mavrokefalou. Angry youths targeted television stations at the end of December, taking reporters at gunpoint and forcing them to read protest messages."Many of [thestations] do not even have a legal right to put up their antennas. They managed to create a status quo, and if the government wants to touch them, they shout about dictatorship and censorship." Some believe the television stations are profiting from a series of power shifts throughout the last several decades that have left both the New Democracy Party and PASOK in political disrepair. In 1974, Constantine Karamanlis, uncle of the current prime minister, founded the New Democracy Party and restored long-absent democracy to Greece. The country had been controlled by a group of right-wing generals previous elections in 1974. Constantine Karamanlis became president and helped lead Greece into a coalition with the European Community, now the European Union. Over the next several years, Greece became significancly more economically stable and continued to regain much of what it had lost as the result German occupation in World War IL In 1981, PASOK won a majority of seats in parliamentary elections. The new prime minister refused to support Karamanlis for a second term, and the parties began to feud publicly. "There has never been a perfect education in democratic rules at our schools and in our society," says Mavrokefalou. "Too much influence comes from family political vendettas or pressure from peer groups." Power has bounced back and forth between PASOK and the ND since 1981. Each party has succumbed to internal feuding and a subsequent fall from grace, only to enjoy a return when the opposition party encounters equally embarrassing pitfalls. PASOK's popularity has been steadily rising over the past two years. "All factors seem to lead to the conclusion that PASOK will be returning to power in the next election," claims Bil Karas. "lt doesn't really matter who is in charge, as long as they can convince the people that something is getting done." "Now, nobody trusts the parties," says Mayrokefalou. "There were too many scandals in each of the main parties representing the right and the left. Therefore, the reaction has been in riots." Mavrokefalou feels that the media storm is doing nothing to help the situation. "News programs are less rigorous and more superficial. They replace research with what they say 'feels like' the truth. Today, the media is judging-and also punishing." As an outsider looking in, one will discover that it is hard to sort fact from fiction in Greece. "The worst thing is that no one takes responsibility for their actions," replies Karas when asked about the breakdown of trust between citizens and government. Void after void in the political system has been filled with new leaders, new attempts at reform, and new promises. Aposcolos claims that part of the problem is that his government "is just not powerful." He says that power falls to the "European Union, the U.S.A., and some rich people to decide about [Greece's] future." Apostolos' cynicism carries with it a grain of wisdom. Greece is not a powerful government, and it will not be in the near future. The country lacks faith in its founding principles, and as history progresses, it has fewer and fewer chances to establish a strong political voice. Until Greece finds stability through strong leadership, it will continue to fall victim to the circular school of history that has kept it embattled since the founding of Athens. Aristocle claimed that "law is order, and good law is good order." lt is time for Greece to seek out strength through the wisdom of well-crafted law. Interviewed: Apostolos - University student in Athens, Greece Estantzos Mavrokefalou - Citizen of Athens, Greece Bil Karas - Citizen of Thessaloniki, Greece • A History of Greek Democracy December, 2008 360 B.C.E. Greece succumbs to a prolonged period of military dictatorship. Plato writes The Republic. 1941 1941 197 4 1967-1974 Constantine Karamanlis restores Athenian Democracy. Alexis Grigoropoulos is shot and killed by a member of the Greek Police; citizens react with riots and violence towards officers. 2009 C.E . Axis Powers occupy Greece during World War II. January I, 1981 Greece joins the European Community, now the European Union. October, 1981 Greece elects Andreas Papandreou as first Socialist Prime Minister; PASOK takes control. 6 2004 Costas Karamanlis is elected Prime Minister; New Democracy Party regains control of government. 7 �. T .: Force Fed Freedom: The March of Gay Rights Erin Shadowens Annapolis '12 I am not a homophobe," Michael Wisniewski of Korzeniow, Poland declares. "[But] I think homosexuality is a disease that should be treated. Special centers should arise for them in which they could be treated, as it is with drug addicts and alcoholics." While 66 countries united to sign a historic, non-binding United Nations (UN) resolution decriminalizing homosexuality worldwide last December, Poland remains at a crossroads between European Union (EU) mandates and a hard-line conservative, Catholic heritage. "People cannot be arrested for being homosexual," Mariusz Mario of Torun, Poland said. "But I'm not sure how it is with the military. I think the official [rule] is they can serve." Emphasis, however, on official. "Even though they [homosexuals] have the right to military service, they are not welcome in the army," Wisniewski asserts, recalling the United States own "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" policy that governed the U.S. military's sexual orientation policy until late last year. Rafal Lesiak, a soldier in the Polish army, refused to even entertain the notion that openly gay individuals could serve. "They can't," he said simply. "Can't." All EU member states must eliminate laws that discriminate on the basis of sexual orientation as part of membership. Poland, an EU member, legalized homosexuality back in 1932. All the same, conservative leaders often garner criticism from LGBT (Lesbian-Gay-Bisexual-Transgender) groups for questionable, prejudicial remarks. In 2006, the Prime Minister went as far as to J - - - GERMANY I H o m o sexuality has b een legal since 1969 Same-sex relationships are recognized Marriage is not legal Sam e-sex c oup les can adopt G ay s can serv e openly in t he military All d iscri m i n ati o n is ban ned - \ \ POLAND legal • Homosexuality is • Sam e-sex relationships are not recognized • Sa m e-sex couples cannot ad o p t • G ays can serve openly in the military • • • • • Homosexuality has been legal since 1993 Same-sex relationships are not recognized Same-sex couples cannot adopt G ays can serve in the military All discrimination is not banned . NORWAY • • • • • • 8 Homosexuality has been legal since 1972 Same-sex relationships are recognized legal Marriage is Same-sex couples can adopt G ays can servein the military All discrim ination is banned SPRING 2009 History of LGBT Rights in Poland 2005 1932 Polish government bans LGBT parades in Warsaw and Poznan . Poland decriminalizes homosexuality. 1990 1948 Poland makes 15 the age of consent for all sexual acts, World Health Organization removes homosexuality from list of diseases 2009 LGBT Rights in Europe • • • • • • H - - - - r , - I - \ characterize homosexuality as "unnatural." As Poland continues to negotiate the tension between laws with a liberal outlook and a family oriented populace, questions regarding schools and adoption threaten to undermine a precarious balance. The dilemma has acutely manifested itself in legislation regarding the Polish education system. Parliament, with the support of the former Deputy Prime Minister and Education Minister, considered a piece of legislationthat would effectively eliminate homosexuality from all levels of administration and instruction in schools. As the Deputy Prime Minister Miroslaw Orzechowski said in 2007, the legislation mandates that "all teachers who reveal their homosexuality will be fired." "It is a mistake to accept homosexuals. It is a bad example for our children and future generations," Wisniewski declares. Although recent elections have stalled the bill's progress, it is far from forgotten. The current Prime Minister Donald Tusk pledged fidelity to the EU Charter, which looks favorably on LGBT rights. Nevertheless, government officials that make and enforce laws contrary to public sentiment risk a serious backlash in democratic elections. Approximately 50 percent of Polish voters actively object to homosexuality, objections which either appear as impassioned assertions like those of Wisniewski, or the feigned neutrality of Leisak. "I can't answer that question because I don't have [an] opinion," Lesiak responded when first questioned about LGBT laws in his country. "I'm neutr al ..." When the question was repeated, he said, "I never think about that." 1937 Nazi concentration camps assign pink triangle to gay men . 1969 2007 Poland decriminalizes homosexual prostitution . 1999 Treaty of Amsterdam requires EU member states to decriminalize homosexuality Again, in regards to the military: I'm a soldier and you don't want me to answer that question, believe me." In a country where an overwhelming 90% identifies with the Catholic Church, the question of homosexuality has one answer or no answer at all. Police handling of LG BT organizations and demonstrations have repeatedly excited accusations of intolerance by ILGA-Europe and Amnesty International, which twice begged the aid of the European Court of Human Rights. The Court censured Polish government and police for both preventing marches and failing to provide adequate security. Right-wing nationalist groups, like the All Polish Youth, continually intimidate demonstrators both physically and verbally. Indeed, citizens like Wisniewski see a nationalist response to alternative lifestyles as the only response. "Because of their orientation and general way of being, [it will] have a bad influence on children [and] young people. Their behavior provokes behavior that should not take place," says Wisniewski. Behavior, Wisniewski explains, that involves a manner of dress and "a specific way of being." It remains something he does not want to see broadcasted in any forum much less a public one. Poland is far from alone in this cultural struggle. All major Western and European nations signed the December resolution - except Russia and the United States. Opposition from the Vatican and predominately Muslim nations came as little surprise. "Muslim countries are different," Jirka Roman of the Czech Republic explains. "[They have] different mentalities, different lifestyles, different education. [However], European nationalities have a similar mentality, we should have the same rights." Even though the U.S. Supreme Court disbarred laws of the same nature, there are no federal hate crime or anti-discrimination laws, unlike most European nations. Furthermore, various ballot proposals and state supreme court decisions prevent the U.S. from assenting to the resolution according to then Secretary of State Condoleeza Rice. Nevertheless, the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN - Dr. Susan Rice--articulated a paradigm shift under the Obama administration, a shift that looks favorable to LGBT activists. Unfortunately for LGBT proponents, the non-binding resolution contains no enforcement mechanism or a clear implementation timeline. It merely articulates an aspiration culturally amenable to select regions. Even though Roman would like to call Europe "many countries as one state," he concedes that Europe itself boasts of "borders and customs that are not the same." "We cannot dictate to anyone," he states. "[Western Europe] should live more for ourselves and stop teaching the world that we are the best. People...know our European Court of Human Rights holds in Baczkowski and Others v. Poland that these bans were unlawful. lifestyle and if they want to be like us they will be." It seems, according to Roman, that the question of right and wrong cannot be answered by a non-binding UN resolution or EU charter. "We should not tell [other countries] what is moral and what is not moral. If they want to, they will change this themselves." It becomes readily apparent that it is easier to ask the question than find the answer to LGBT acceptance. For Wisniewski, tradition and family unite a country--not human rights. For Poland's LGBT minority, these rights provide the only real defense of their lifestyle. "Polish people want to reject this way of life," Anne Nowak, a college student in Poland, said. "I think that maybe they don't know how to treat different people. It's easy to get different and people mixed up." Yet if Poland is to remain in the EU a conclusion must be reached, and a course must be determined to reconcile these vastly disparate conceptions of the LGBT community. Interviewed: Michael Wisniewski - Korzeniow, Poland Rafal Lesiak - Soldier, Polish citizen Jirka Roman - Citizen, Czech Republic Anne Nowak - Student, Polish citizen Dan Lucas - Citizen, United Kingdom Mariusz Mario - Torun, Poland 9 �THE EPOCH - A Culture of Censorship Valerie Blomberg Annapolis '12 On January 20th, 2009, the global community was struck by news from Moscow, Russia, that a human rights lawyer and a journalist were shot in broad daylight in central Moscow. Stanislav Markelov was a lawyer well-known for fearlessly defending victims of political abuse. Killed alongside him was anarchist Anastasia Baburova, a 25-year-old freelance journalist. A double murder that appears shocking to the rest of the world is unfortunately not uncommon in Russia, where media freedom has taken a turn for the worse ever since the nineties. Will the murders of Markelov and Baburova prompt a movement toward greater media freedom in Russia? "No, not inside the country," says Andrei Rihter, Associate Professor in Mass Media Law and Journalism at Moscow State University. "Even the murder of Anna Politkovskaya [a well known journalist] had no such effect." Russia now ranks as the thirdmost dangerous country for journalists, 10 behind Iraq and Algeria. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, 49 journalists have been killed as a result of their professional duties since 1992. Russian authorities, on the other hand, only acknowledge the deaths of those journalists who are killed on the job. Anna Politkovskaya was an investigative reporter who wrote extensively on sensitive political issues and frequently spoke out against the policies of President Vladimir Putin. Her murder in 2006 sparked global outrage, prompting Mikhail Gorbachev to say, "It is a blow to the entire democratic, independent press. It is a grave crime against the country, against all of us." Investigative reporters for newspapers which circulate outside the major cities are the most endangered. "Tons of these folks have been intimidated, shut down, or just plain killed in the past several years," says Thomas Campbell, editor of the Englishlanguage news blog Chto Delat based in Moscow. "Anna Politkovskaya is the example everyone knows, but she is hardly alone--even at her own newspaper, Novaya Gazeta, where the death toll is something like five or six, depending on how you count." Many have linked the murder of Markelov with the savage beating of newspaper editor Mikhail Beketov outside his home last November. Beketov led a crusade against corruption in the local administration of Kimkhi, a town outside of Moscow. "This sort of violence and intimidation works better than censorship," says Campbell. "Because it discourages a journalist from even starting to look into a story." Repression of the media in Russia takes many forms . Authorities use "friendly pressure" to convince reporters to withhold information or put a certain spin on a story. A more indirect form of censorship is stepping in the way of advertising flows . Pressure is placed on businesses and newsstands, forcing them to distribute only media that the government supports. And of course, there's the alarming death toll for journalists at newspapers such as Novaya Gazeta. Mikhail Blinnikov, a U.S. resident who was born and lived in Russia remembers when the Russian media was more free, "In the early 1990s the situation was completely different, with everyone reading 3-4 papers a day. Back then there were two or three independent TV channels as well, most famous of which, NTV, was forcibly taken over by the Putin government in the early 2000-200 l ." "Media freedom is an elusive thing," says Blinnikov. "Russia has more of it than China, but less than most other large countries. Specifically, TV is not free at all. All the major channels are directly controlled by the government and/ or a few semi-governmental corporations. Local channels are mostly supported by the local authorities." Unfortunately, most Russians rely on television as their main source of news. "A week watching the news broadcasts on the central channels will stand your hair on end," says Campbell. "The viewpoint is that of the ruling elite alone, and you get the impression that in Russia there are only two people, Putin and Medvedev [the current Russian president] , who are surrounded by a large cast of nearly voiceless -- but, of course, grateful -- 'extras' -- the other 140 million people who have the misfortune to live in Russia." Self-censorship is the most widespread form of repression in Russia, according to Rihter. It succeeds where outright censorship fails since it originates in the news organizations themselves. "In Soviet times, censorship was an official practice," Campbell responds. "There was a thick bureaucracy that censored literally everything that was published, from newspapers and books to art exhibitions. Nothing like that exists now, but (on TV especially) many stories are just 'disappeared' -- i.e., not reported in the central press -or reported in such a distorted way that, if you happen to have some knowledge of the real story -- you would wonder what SPRING 2009 they're talking about." Another impediment to true freedom of the press is limited government access. Policy makers meet behind locked doors, in rooms where journalists are regularly denied access. "Then there is the difficulty of getting information or interviews from government officials," says Campbell. "And getting people to go on the record because they're scared what might happen to them." The authorities themselves face losing their jobs or worse, if caught expressing their true opinion. Mainstream media came almost exclusively under government control when the Putin administration in 2000 coerced the major news organizations into following the party line. Nowadays, a return to the "glory days" of the nineties seems less and less possible. "I watched a lot of TV in Russia in the nineties," Campbell reminisces. "It was the most freewheeling, informative TV I have ever seen in my life, anywhere. Anything and everything was discussed and reported openly--and of course it wasn't necessarily a pretty picture. What we have now is a crying shame." In a nation where governmentsponsored media dominates one would expect that smaller media outlets like Novaya Gazeta, struggling to present an alternative viewpoint, would gain a renegade reputation as outspoken left-wing activists and troublemakers. But according to Campbell, even if a publication has a good reputation, there's the further difficulty of getting it distributed outside the major cities. "Novaya Gazeta has a good reputation among the folks who read it and care about the things they write about. In many cases, they (or a few similar publications) are simply the only ones writing about certain stories. But again, their circulation (supplemented by those reading the paper online) is limited. In my experience in St. Petersburg, newsstands often don't carry the paper." In the provinces, journalists lack the resources available to their counterparts in the big cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg. In addition, they often face local authorities wielding great power. Illegal pressure is placed on journalists to withhold information or present a story in an approved manner. In most cases, the regional government provides the funding for the local media and the local media is run by the authorities themselves. This poses obstacles for oppositional movements and human rights organizations because it leaves almost no room for gaining momentum, or simply getting the word out. Even if the mainstream media chooses to report on an organized protest, for example, the names of the people involved and the organizations they represent are rarely mentioned. Instead they are vaguely referred to as a "public figure" or "political group." "I think that is the main issue," says Campbell. "Not reputation, but access. I don't know whether any sociologists or pollsters have investigated this, but I would imagine that, say, if you polled folks nationwide and asked them 1) whether they knew who Anna Politkovskaya was, (I hope) most would know something about her. But 2) if you asked them about Novaya Gazeta (or some other publication 11 �A History of Media Freedom in Russia January 20, 2009 April 3, 200 I Lawyer Stanislav Markelov and journalist Anastasia Baburova are shot in central Moscow. The murders have all the outward appearances of a political assassination. Markelov is believed have been the primary target. NTV. a major TV news station, comes under the direct control of the Russian government after its previously independent status proved a financial disaster. 1999 December 3 I, 1999 Putin comes to power after the resignation of Boris Yeltsin . He won the presidential election the following year. of this sort), then the vast majority would say they've never heard of it. So while the mainstream might indulge in slandering such outlets or their journalists, the best way to make sure they have no influence is simply not to mention them at all." In any country, media serves as the main channel of communication between those in power and the general public. Does the state of media freedom in Russia represent the country's current relationship between government and people? According to Rihter, "It probably does, especially when governmental media dominate the market, like in Russia. I would not say it is the most important issue for the country in the current economic crises, but certainly 2009 October 7, 2006 Anna Politkovskaya is murdered in the elevator of her apartment building in Moscow. Politkovskaya was a journalist who reported on the Chechen conflict and spoke out against the policies of the Putin administration . without solving it the country will not develop as a democracy." If things continue as they have over the past few months, it appears that Russia will continue to be a dangerous place for journalists. Blinnikov looks to the internet as an increasingly valuable resource for Russians seeking the real stories. "The most freedom is on the Internet with a few dozen high-quality news sites, including many with fairly anti-governmental views." As the internet becomes more accessible to the average citizen, many hope that the numerous obstacles facing the press will be overcome, and that Russia can finally takes its place among other first-world countries in it media liberty. November 13, 2008 Mikhail Beketov, editor of a small newspaper in the province of Kimkhi , is beaten outside his home. He was a harsh critic of the local authorities . Interviewed: Andrei Rihter - Professor, Moscow, Russia Thomas Campbell - American researcher, translator, writer, and activist. Mikhail Blinnikov - Professor St. Cloud State University Elena Morozova-Abingdon, MD, immigrated to America from Russia in 1991 �The Day After Democracy Shikysha Adhikari Annapolis '12 INDIA • The state of Kashmir held smooth elections, a rarity for the beleaguered state whose possession is disputed by India and Pakistan. Part of the election's success came from preventing separatists from voting. NORTH KOREA • The country claimed that it was ending a pact with South Korea designed to ease military tension between the two countries, and it appeared that long-range missile parts were being moved to a newly built launch site in the country. Since then, the government has released statements meant to soften their positions to something more in line with the wishes of other countries. AUSTRALIA • 173 were killed and more left homeless after the worst wildfires in the country's history swept through the state of Victoria, in the southeast comer of the country. Police have confirmed that arson played a role in some of the fires. "It was one of the days when the demonstrations on the streets were in full momentum. I switched the television on and what I saw took me by utter shock. I saw a young man lying dead on the street. I was horrified," recalls Abhishek Thakur, a medical student in Nepal. Thakur had casually turned on his television to the sight of thousands of Nepalese protesters marching against absolute monarchy as part of Jana Andolan II, The People's Movement (Part II), a continuation of the unrest begun in 1990. "The entire country was closed down for a long I1 period and it certainly affected the economy negatively. Strikes and curfews for such a long amount of time was horrific," remembers Aseem Shrestha, a student in Nepal. Their observations offer a glimpse of the second mass revolution waged against the former king, Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev, when he acquired direct rule over Nepal and established himself as its absolute monarch. Strikes, demonstrations, violence, and curfews were in full swing daily. Nevertheless, the revolution produced a successful transition of power on May 28 th 2008, ending two hundred and forty years of monarchy. Nepal became the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, and the power to rule the country was turned over to the Nepalese people. Nepal has never had a taste of such freedom before. But acquiring this freedom was no small task. The revolution to place governance in the hands of the people was massive, with citizens from around the country actively involved in the fight for representative government. But are the peopleofNepal truly aware of the meaning of the word republic - a concept for which so many fought? Many areas of Nepal are extremely remote, where even the prerequisites of development are either non-existent or barely present. Citizens in these areas, where the means of transport and communication are not well developed, enjoy very modest knowledge of this massive revolution. The illiteracy rate is high, limiting the movement of news and information. The educated and well-informed class is extremely small in comparison to the much larger group of citizens who do not have access co any means of communication. Still Thakur believes knowledge is spreading. "Even though the percentage of literate people is not that good, I think people have started becoming aware of how the government functions. Otherwise, the revolution would not have been so successful in the first place. The election of the constituent assembly was quite successful. Having said that, an increase in the literacy rate and the infrastructures would be very helpful for the proper functioning of the 15 �republic system for the development of Nepal." An election for a Constituent Assembly, which is responsible for drafting a new constitution, was held on April 10 th , 2008. The widely reported controversies involving Maoists attempting to seize polling stations and scuffles among party representatives resulted in the cancellation of voting at 33 polling stations. Nevertheless, the overall national voter turnout stood at approximately 60% . Nepal had achieved democracy. Sachin Joshi, a Nepalese chartered accountant in training believes, "The citizens will be strong enough to overpower the same obstacles that have troubled past governments, such achievement is yet to be seen. Tired from years of unrest, many simply seek peace. ''All we want is a stable form of government", says Thakur. One of the main hindrances in the overall development of Nepal seems to be the constant flux of power. During the period of constitutional monarchy, no party was able to retain its position long enough to effect change. The Nepali Congress, which ruled from 1991 to 1994, holds the record for longest single party rule since the industrial infrastructure ofNepal in its infant stages and the capital produced by Nepal insufficient to rectify this deficit, large-scale economic development is impossible. Thus, grants and donations constitute a major part of the Nepalese economy. A country which depends on foreign grants and generates only nominal income could not afford the excesses of the Royal Family. "Personally, I was not satisfied with what Mr. Shah [the former king] did at that point of time. He had taken the national carrier, the then Royal Nepal Airlines jet plane on his own when Nepal has only two jet planes. Nepal 's Trans itio n to Democracy 1961 Late King Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah D ev appointed a council of five ministers to help run the administration and all the political parties were declared illegal. 1990 1960 1990 as before, then Nepal will have no future at 16 restoration of the multi-party democracy in 1990. "The moment a party got its chance to enact their policies, one thing or the other would go wrong and a new party would come into power. And the same thing would repeat again and again," says Adhikari. Joshi adds, "The major powers in the world were able to rise and are able to maintain their development because of their constant form of government. Stability is what counts. If the government can be stable now, the Republic will bloom for the better of all." The citizens of Nepal have very high expectations of the new republic. The extravagant indulgences of the Royal Family had eroded faith in the Monarchy, which was becoming increasingly expensive during the reign of the former King, Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev. The Nepalese economy suffered as its resources were squandered in favor of luxury for the royals. With the This is just an example. These kinds of royal expenditure were increasing at a rapid pace," recalls Joshi. In 1955, the Late King, Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev, had taken absolute power. During his reign the economic fortunes of Nepal were directly tied to those of India. Multi-party representation was restored to Nepal in 1990, although the Monarchy remained, and the economy has been deteriorating ever since. "Only the former Royal Families are not to be blamed. Corruption by the so called 'leaders' in high governmental position also have a major role in hindering the growth of Nepal," says Adhikari. Now, with the Royal Family removed from the government, faith rests entirely in the concept of a Republic. "Basically, Nepal lacked leadership before. It needs to start afresh. If we are given the option to choose only amongst the leaders with dispositions 2009 Late King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev (successor of King Mahendra) restored the Multi-Party Democracy after the mass revolution, 'The People's Movement' broke out. all," says Shrescha. now have the power to run the country. It will definitely take some amount of time for people in general and especially the ones in the remote areas to become fully aware about the new form of government. And eventually they will come to realize the true meaning of it. I have a lot of faith in the present government of Nepal." Kapu Adhikari, a teacher, adds, "Basically, I think it is a cycle. On the one hand, people will not be able to exercise their power and realize their responsibilities unless they are well aware and well educated. On the ocher, the people will only be educated if the government takes proper measures to improve the education system. The literacy rate has not improved drastically in the past years. I hope the new system will work hard towards increasing it." The shift to a republic was built on dreams of just such reform, and while many are hopeful that the new republic 2005 Former King Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev took complete control over the government, dismissing the elected parliament. "I think Nepal is improving a lot in that area because well-educated and strong people are appointed as leaders now," adds Joshi. Hope rests in the form of the current President, Dr. Ram Baran Yadav, a physician who has been an active member of the political community of Nepal. "Personally, I believe in His Excellency's [the President's] ability. He has been involved in the political system of Nepal for the past many years and was also appointed as the Minister of Heath in the 1991-1994 Nepali Congress Government. I believe he is wellaware of the political scenario of Nepal and will work towards the betterment of the country," says Thakur. Pushpa Kamal Dahal [the former Maoist premier, known as Prachanda] has been appointed as the first Prime Minister "I of the Federal Republic of Nepal. believe that the Maoist leaders are a bunch of intellectual people," Joshi states. A communist revolutionary, politician and a former guerilla leader, he is the chairman of the Communist Party of Nepal (or the Maoists), the largest political party as a result of the elections held in 2008. He is said to have been involved in education and rural development projects for quite some time. Possibly as a backlash against the unguided governments of the past, educational and academic history have 2006 King Gyanendra was forced to return power to the parliament. 2008 Election for a Constituent Assembly, which is responsible for drafting a new constitution, was held, Nepal was declared as a Federal Republic . become increasingly important for political figures. Dr. Baburarn Bhattarai- a senior community member of the Communist Party of Nepal and the current Minister of Finance, also has strong academic credentials. He received a Bachelor's degree in Architecture, and his Ph.D thesis was later published as a book, The Nature of political parties have started interpreting this new freedom in an incorrect manner. The people do not need any reason at all to carry out demonstrations in the streets and to vandalize the public properties. They have stopped resorting to peaceful negotiations. They have started thinking that chanting slogans is the solution to all their problems. Underdevelopment and Regional Structure of I think it is too early to decide. Everything Nepal A Marxist Analysis. He is viewed as an depends on how strong the government will "uncompromising ideologue and leader" by be. Looking at the current progress, it might prominent Indian intellectuals. take ten to fifteen years for the changes to "I do not think that starting a guerilla reach the grass-root level," says Joshi. war which lasted for twelve years was a good Will the republic be worth the mass move on their part. Intellectual people like revolution, the violence, the chaos and these should not have resorted to violence. instability? "It has to be. There is no other Now, they have power. I hope they will option left in the country. Nepalese people utilize it to the best of their abilities. have tasted all forms of leadership in the Otherwise, Nepal is not in a state to bear country, from autocracy to multi-party the consequences," says Joshi. democracy," says Sachin Joshi. Has the Republican Government The only option remaining for the of Nepal started to act on the promised people of Nepal is to wait patiently for the reforms? "So far, there has not been any benefits of sovereign power. ''All we can change in the lives of the common people. do now is have faith in the leaders of our In fact, some areas are getting worse. With country and work patiently with dignity only eight hours of electrical power each day and self-respect." and limited gas supplies even in the capital Interviewed: city, needs are not being met. Since Nepal is Kapu Adhikari - Teacher, Nepali an underdeveloped country, the republican citizen system will have to overcome tremendous Sachin Joshi - Nepali citizen, obstacles to bring about positive changes. currently a student in India We need to be hopeful," says Adhikari. Abishek Thakur - Student, Nepal Shrestha adds, "Common citizens Aseem Shrestha - Student, Nepal along with the ones belonging to different 17 �Running on Fumes: Venezuela's Economic Crisis John Vining Annapolis' 11 BRITISH COLUMBIA. CANADA • British Columbia begins prosecution of polygamist Mormons who had been living in the province for more than 50 years after excommunicated from the mainline Mormon church. BOLIVIA • A new constitution is approved in a national referendum. The 41 I article document gives increased rights to indigenous peoples and emphasizes the socialist bent of President Evo Morales, with provisions such as one that restricts landholdings. "Venezuela is a very rich country with very poor politicians running it," says Guillermo Anton, who owns a small newspaper in Valencia, Venezuela. "We have a huge income due mostly to our oil production, and still have over 70% of the population living in very poor conditions." With the new year, Venezuela faces Hugo Chavez's tenth year in power and the memory of last year's inflation, which at 30.9% is 10% higher than the average for the last five years. The Venezuelan finance ministry hopes to have an inflation rate of 15% for 2009, but economists believe this is an overly optimistic prediction. Venezuela is stuck between low oil prices abroad and massive spending at home, which president Hugo Chavez has vowed to never cut. This has left Venezuela with a painful year of inflation. "Prices change without notice," laments Bernardo Gomez, who works trading meat and sugar. "Margins must be higher ·than in other countries to account for it [inflation]." Venezuela's inflation is connected to its consistent reliance on revenues from oil. Nearly 100 years ago companies from the U.S. and elsewhere came to drill for oil. Venezuela heavily taxed the companies that were drilling, and thus became heavily dependent on the income generated from the continuation of this drilling. By the 1950s over-extraction had led to a depression in the global oil market, causing Venezuela to help create the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in the 1960s, a consortium formed to control production in an effort to combat low prices. In 2000, Chavez organized a meeting of OPEC, whose members had since departed from past agreements. Shortly after the meeting, Chavez argued that the then partially nationalized oil in Venezuela needed to be re-nationalized, since, he claimed, it had grown too independent. With Venezuela's still abundant oil supplies, careful management of oil extraction led to increased income for Chavez's government. However this wealth has not consistently translated to large-scale increases in living standards. Many blame the Chavez regime for poorly employing Venezuela's natural wealth for the benefit of most of its citizens. Resident Edgar Mata was blunt in his assessment of the situation. "It's chaos. Economically, it's terrible, because the government has destroyed the productive apparatus." However, Chavez is frequently hailed as a champion of the people. He has established several social programs which make him popular among the poor, including creating health centers and making food more readily available. These programs were more easily maintained while oil prices were high, but now, in an oil-price trough, Chavez must choose between inflation, taxing his citizens, and cutting programs. Inflation has been plaguing Venezuela for years, beginning in the late 1970s. Last year's inflation was more than twice the highest America has ever experienced, and more than 10 times the rate which economists generally prefer. In general inflation is caused when more cash is put into circulation, which then dilutes the value of each bill. In Venezuela, inflation chiefly occurs when the amount of local currency, bolivars, increases in relation to reserves of foreign currency that the central bank maintains. Recently, oil income has fallen with lower oil prices, but the Venezuelan government continues to spend. In order to do so, they must utilize the central bank to generate ever-increasing quantities of bolivars, which in turn makes each individual bolivar less valuable. "The government now has less money coming in," says Gomez. "So, I foresee a cut in dollar allocations. They may need to devalue the currency." Finance Minister Ali Rodriguez has mentioned the devaluation of the bolivar as a potential cure. If the Venezuelan central bank does devalue its currency, it would alter the exchange-rate for bolivars to dollars at the central bank. The central bank, however, limits the number of dollars that can be purchased this way. This forces citizens who want a larger quantity of dollars than their allotment to turn to the black market, where prices are not fixed and are thus much higher. For example, the central bank will currently give citizens a fixed number of dollars at 2.15 bolivars per dollar. But, if an individual wants more dollars than their 19 �allotment, they must turn to the black market where they might pay upwards of 5 bolivars per dollar. "The government is unable to supply all the foreign exchange demanded by the economy," says Bernano Gomez. "If you really need dollars and the government won't give them to you, you have no choice." Caracas resident Chelsa Pabon doesn't use the black market, "because it is more expensive. However," she continued, "Many people have to do it, because it's the only way to get the foreign currency that they need to buy things that are not produced in our country." Yet others think that the relationship between the open markets and the black markets works differently. "I mean there is not control with the exchange rate," said Luis Chivico, a resident of Venezuela. "The black market is pushing the prices too high." Many economists, however, would argue that the bolivar is actually worth the black market price, because there has been a huge increase in the number of bolivars, sending their value downward. This makes Venezuela a particularly difficult country in which to run a business. The Heritage Foundation, a Washington 20 think-tank, ranks Venezuela 174 th out 179 countries in terms of economic freedom, which measures the hindering effects of government on the economy. "The main issue is that, since the government controls the exchange rate-it has been the same for several years-we are definitely not competitive abroad," Gomez describes. "Exports are rare. Nonpetroleum exports have decreased." "I do know many friends and colleagues re-thinking or re-orienting their business," he continues. "In light of what many foresee as a very difficult year, we have been trying to develop business abroad." A person holding cash does not have a way to earn interest, unlike a bank. The individual has his savings stored in cash which will decrease in value without any compensation. Intense inflation thus behaves like a tax. Since the government devalues money by increasing the quantity in circulation, the citizens money is now worth less. "Well the inflation is very high in Venezuela and in my particular case, my salary is now not enough to cover all my needs," says Pabon. "For example, I have a kid and he is in a private school because the education in public schools is very deficient in my country. Also, he practices baseball and I have to pay for that, and I have to buy cloches for he and me and all this is increasingly expensive ... the food is very expensive, too and every week the prices rise considerably. For that reason I have stopped buying many things and buy only what is strictly necessary for my family." But Pabon has run into more than economic problems. "Venezuela was a country relatively sure, but in the last 10 years normal life is almost impossible," she says. "Citizens, in all cities of the country, can not move without danger of being robbed, raped and even killed by criminals." The U.S. Department of State calls crime in Venezuela "pervasive," reporting Venezuela's murder rate as one of the highest in the world. Also, kidnapping has increased 78% in the last two years. The homicide rate has doubled since Chavez took power. "Moreover the government of Hugo Chavez has also developed its paramilitary army composed of people outside the law or willing to violate the law," Pabon continued. "These people are protected by the government and commit crimes with complete impunity." Some think that the rising crime rate is connected to Chavez's progressively fiercer attacks on the rich. "Most of our population is poor, and have certain envy for the middle class and the rich," says Anton. "Chavez has supported and fed that with his constant speeches against the rich, creating a silent war between the rich and poor. Creating an atmosphere of distrust affects the economy enormously, because it scares away investors." Chavez is currently campaigning for a referendum which would end all term limits, letting him rule indefinitely. This has been voted down once before, yet Chavez promises disaster if he must leave office in 2013, when his current term is set to end. He has warned of a potential civil The Recent History of Venezuela 2000 1992 Chavez unsuccessfully leads a coup against the thenpresident.When it had failed, Chavez asked to speak on TV, where he said it had only failed for the moment. Chavez is reelected and given the temporary power to legislate by decree on economic, social, and public administration matters. He approved 49 laws, some of which promted strikes by union members and businesses. 1990 2009 1998 Chavez is elected president two years after being released from prision for his failed coup. war between those who follow Chavez's supporters and those who oppose his regime. However, some promise disaster if he retains power. "If Hugo Chavez remains in power, Venezuela will continue its rapid descent into a total economic breakdown," Pabon says. "State resources are being squandered and there is no investment policy that allows a rational use of oil revenues. If Chavez remains in power for more time," she continues, "domestic and foreign investors continue to flee the country as they have been doing in recent years due to financial, legal, institutional and physical insecurity in Venezuela." Chavez, as a result of his extensive social programs, seems to have set Venezuela on an unsustainable path. Without oil revenues, Chavez must spend money he does not have, and force his citizens to pay by way of inflation. High inflation does not only make many poorer, it makes planning for the future harder, and sets in place disincentives to save. Guillermo Anton has a bleak outlook for the future. "The constant lefty speech, the threats against private property and [threats of] nationalization are deadly for the economy." 2006 Chavez seeks and wins a third six-year term. He also announces that he is hoping to change laws so that he might run again in 2012. Interviewed: Bernardo Gomez Chelsa Pabon Edgar Mata Guillermo Anton LuisChivico Luvin Carrerro Marianela lsA'riz Virginia Yepez (All citizens of Venezuela) �Bloodying the Holy Land Tex Pasley Annapolis '11 SUDAN • The International Criminal Court has issued an arrest warrant for President Omar Hassan al-Bashir. This is the first time the court has sought the detention of a sitting head of state, leading some to protest the decision, since it could interfere with the work of peacekeepers sorting out the Darfur crisis. MADAGASCAR • More than 20 supporters of Andry Rajoelina, the mayor of Antananavario, the capital city, were killed in a protest against the sitting president, Marc Ravalomanana, whose post has been challenged by Rajoelina. sworn in as battle with still present, country "I would say that Israeli leaders made an unfortunate bad decision," Shadi Habaib of the Peres Center for Peace in Tel Aviv, Israel says. "I believe we are all going to feel its devastating impact in the Middle East within the next five years." Habaib speaks of the recent invasion of the Gaza Strip by Israeli military forces in response to rockets fired across the border from Gaza into Israel. But as with any conflict in IsraeliPalestinian relations, the root cause of the dust-up cannot be summarized with a simple formulation of attack and retaliation. This particular conflict began when Harnas, a Palestinian political party regarded by many (including the United States) as a terrorist organization, took over the Gaza Strip in June 2007, ousting Farah, another major political party considered to be more moderate. In response, Israel imposed an economic blockade on Gaza, which naturally lead to retaliation in the form of rocket fire into Israel. In June 2008, Egypt brokered a cease-fire. This momentarily calmed the quarrel, but after further bickering over intensified blockades and increased rocket fire, the cease-fire descended into a full-on invasion. Ofcourse, those involved in the conflict arenotonly consideringthetransgressionsof the past two years. "I think that the conflict was inevitable and Israeli action was totally justified," Maurizio De Pitta, a student in Tel Aviv, Israel, says. "For the reason that it is not justifiable that somebody could throw rockets on daily basis without any specific target for the past 8 years and, as you see, still keep on doing that. I speak of Hamas and the militants from Gaza." Pitta points to an issue that makes drastic measures such as invasion so difficult. The "enemy'' attacking Israel with rocket fire is identified by many as a minority group of militants, with a vague relationship to Hamas. "I will say that, as an Israeli, I feel we should do more to isolate Harnas," says Gil Haveli, of lsrael. "The issue is that they have an agenda: No Israel." Such a predicament is not especially new, and with a similar situation for the United States, a dichotomy emerged between those who favor military action and those favoring diplomacy. "[My son] is 100% convinced, along with his soldiers, that there was no other choice but to fight the terrorists and not the Palestinian population," says David Mirza of Herzeliya, Israel. His son served as an officer in the Israeli Army during the invasion. The elder Mirza also served as an officer in the Israeli army. "Of course the majority of Palestinians [have good intentions]. Unfortunately, they are pressed by terrorism groups and by interests within the Arab world." This minority might have been isolated, but the call for military was hardly action unilateral. The world was treated to pictures of many seemingly innocent Palestinians affected by the Israeli military action. This calls into question the prudence of attacking a people who, as a majority, are purported to be seeking some sort of peace. "Objectively speaking, the war on Gaza did not achieve its objectives," says Habaib. "As a matter of [saving] face Israeli political and army leaders mentioned several times 23 �AFRICA that stopping rockets through a military action is almost impossible. But I don't think Hamas has won either." The two sides ended the conflict by reaching a cease-fire; thus ending the conflict with no discernable change. Israel's stated goal had been to end cross-border rocket fire against Israeli citizens, attacks which have been a constant threat to 24 & MID EAST Israeli's for years and had escalated with the blockade. The cease-fire failed to end this rocket fire. ''As it looks today, after 20 rockets were fired, [Israel] will have to react again," says Mirza. "It will create deterrence that will force the terrorists to stop firing. The military action was stopped too early because of the involvement of various interests that do not care about our need of safety. For us it is not a game or social experiment it is our survival, do you think we do not wish to live in peace with surrounding Arabs?" Mirza's views are consistent with those of many Israeli citizens. But with the most recent invasion producing the tension of yet another ceasefire. Others think that solutions might lie in a less militaristic path. "I can only say what they have said themselves before," Habaib said. "[Military action] would not solve the problem, more than that, the smuggling of weapons has been resumed immediately. We all know that the solution must be political. Hamas claims that the rockets are in response to the siege, which is by their claim 'an act of war,' as they quote from international law." A political solution, as painless as it might initially sound, would be painful given the tenor of recent political dealings between THE EPOCH - the two countries. Furthermore there is the initial difficulty of uniting the two Palestinian territories - the Gaza Strip and West Bank - each run by separate political factions. The previously discussed Hamas gruesomely ousted Fatah from control in the Gaza Strip in 2007. "Two years ago they killed in cold blood almost 250 Fatah members and took over the Gaza Strip and took Mahmoud Abbas out of the game," says Haveli. "But Fatah was in control of the Gaza Strip before that. Mahmoud Abbas could have reached an agreement and maybe even get parts of Jerusalem or the nearby villages; [he] was accepted and elected by the people." Fatah, with Abbas as their leader, is generally considered to have a more moderate stance than their Hamas counterparts. Thus, many in Israel in the West would prefer to see Fatah in power. · Hamas' status as a terrorist organization, according to many Western nations, prevents joint talks limiting political progress. As a result of these reservations, a first step towards a political solution would probably require control of both the Gaza Strip and West Bank by Fatah. However, the 2006 elections for the Palestinian National Authority (PNA), Palestine's legislative body, resulted in a majority rule by Hamas, signaling that the people of Palestine might have more in common with the radical views of Hamas. A unity government was initially formed including members of both parties in various roles of governance. This unity, however, did not last long, as Hamas launched its military campaign to remove Fatah in 2007. After Fatah military forces were ousted from Gaza, Israel reacted by blockading the Gaza Strip, effectively shutting down economic activity, and furthering the tension between the residents of Gaza and the Israeli government. This incited, not unexpectedly, retaliation from those in Gaza, causing Israel to respond through invasion. However, negotiations did take place before m ilitary action, although the were indeed fruitless. Among those calling for political SPRING 2009 A History of Rece nt Co nfli ct in Gaza June 13, 200 7 Hamas, takes control of the Gaza Strip from Fatah, a rival poltical party. Israel responds by tightening border access, crippling the Gazan economy. December 27, 2008 Israel invades the Gaza strip in response to rocket fire from Hamas militants. 2009 2007 N ovember 14, 2008 January 18, 2009 It could happen that Likud will end up forming a ruling coalition, because smaller parties are more likely to align themselves with Likud's policies. Meaning that even though Kadima won more seats, they would be unable to exert majority influence over parliament. Another recent election, of course, happened in the United States, and Barack Obama's platform pushed for continued strong support of Israel. This, however, does not quell optimism from some about the effect of a new face in Washington and the change that might bring. "I think that that his background and color allow him to better understand the suffering of both Israeli and Palestinian civil societies," says Habaib. ''And I hope that this side of his personality will become noticed when shaping his policies in the middle east. I also think that his historic achievement binds him to the same morals and values he and other African-Americans long fought for and won." Others do not share Habaib's optimism, or even his belief that the U.S. President has an effect on relations. "[Obama will have] no effect," says Mirza. "He cannot deal with terrorists. After Iraq, Bush lost momentum, but his attitude was correct for fighting terrorism. Obama and his government have developed an expectation of bringing in a big box full of magic." Others encourage looking beyond Obama himself into other aspects of his administration. "Well, I cannot forecast it," De Pitta said. "But I guess that some possible effects [from Obama] could be expected. But more than Obama, let's see what Mrs. Clinton will do. I personally trust her skills, and consider her the right person to deal with such a harsh context. It is a little too early to see what will happen, since a lot will depend on future relations with the " government here. It is unclear whether this change of power will have an effect. The difficulty seems to be greater than bringing in new faces to each side of the negotiating table. "The Western concepts of "dialectic" and "dialogue" are not understood by these people," says De Pitta. "So once you drop these tools of western diplomacy, while waiting for the development of new strategies, it seems that bare military action is the only way to "discuss" with these people." Hamas breaks a cease-fire by firing rockets A cease-fire is brokered between Israel and into Israel, claiming that they were responding Gaza. Rocket fire from Gaza into Israel has to the deaths of 11 militants, and increased been reported since then . border closings. solutions, however, the invasion was a setback for the possibility of a peaceful, diplomatic resolution. "The solution in Gaza must start with a political agreement with Fatah and the formation of a unity government," Habaib said. "One that will bind Hamas to a security understanding with Israel. I am afraid we have already lost the opportunity for a two state solution." The "two-state solution" Habaib refers to would unify Palestine as independent nation alongside Israel, as specified by the United Nations in 1947 when Israel was formed. To this day Palestine still serves as an observer entity to the United Nations. To say that the opportunity for a "two-state" solution is gone is certainly a depressing stance, since it necessarily would lead to the dissolution of either Israel or Palestine (a one-state solution) . The lack of compromise is largely due to the push by radical groups for the destruction of the opposing state, both in Israel and Palestine. With a parliamentary election that just recently occurred, voters were almost evenly split between the centrist Kadima party, led by Tzipi Livni, and the more right-leaning Likud party of Benjamin Netanyahu. Before The Epoch went to press, Kadima had won one more seat than Likud, yet neither party held an outright majority. It was uncertain whether Kadima could head a coalition government. Interviewed : Shadi Haibab - Director with Palestinian Authority and Arab Media, Peres Center for Peace, Tel Aviv, Israel David Mirza - Herzeliya, Israel Gil Halevi - Citizen of Israel Maurizio De Pitta - Tel Aviv, Israel 25 �Cameron's Corner Animal Collective takes a melodious turn Cameron Coates Annapolis '10 Animal Collective Merriweather Post Pavilion Members: David Portner, Noah Lennox, Josh Dibb, Brian Weitz Animal Collective always seems to tread a fine line between obnoxious and incredible. And they don't leave much leeway between the two. Personally, I've never been able to understand Strawberry jam (2007) fanatics , and sitting all the way through an album like that seems more like an act of physical stamina than a good time. Animal Collective's sound can shift drastically from track to track, let alone album to album. One minute it's feral howls and pounding tribal drums, the next, Avey Tare's ghoulish groans serenading over a static, droning synch sample. That's the kind of Animal Collective that makes my head hurt. Thankfully, every once in a while they swing back towards my side 26 of the spectrum and drop an album like material things like a social status I I just Merriweather Post Pavilion. want four walls and adobe slabs for my Animal Collective's music tends to girls." "Summertime Cloches" rejoices, sound jagged and unmelodic, straying "Rip off your sleeves and I'll ditch my anywhere from the drugged-out slow socks I Dance to the songs from the cars as jams of Feels (2005) to the frenetic they pass / Weave through the cardboard, nonsense noise-rock of Strawberry jam. smell that trash / Walkin' around in our Merriweather Post Pavilion departs from summertime cloches," while "Guys Eyes" those extremes, developing a slushy, struggles between overlapping lines of "I syrupy pop demeanor which suits them really want to do just what my body wants well. "My Girls" has a dreamy, echoing to" and "I really want to show to my girl chorus and tinkling synch drifting above that I want her," eventually devolving into a heavy bass line, and lead men Avery guttural repetitions of "Need her." The sound is more tight and focused Tare (David Portner) and Panda Bear (Noah Lennox) sing over each ocher to here than earlier records, and this gives create a round-like effect. "Guys Eyes" Merriweather Post Pavilion a pop quality starts with the gurgling, nocturnal sounds that Feels hinted at. Who could have of the jungle before falling into another expected Animal Collective to make a confused, overlapping chorus. It's always record with · no tracks breaking the six been hard to know what to do with Animal minute mark? This record plays like Collective's lyrics. "There'll be time to The Beach Boys compared to Strawberry just cry, I wonder why it didn't work out Jam. But it's natural for a band that feels / There'll be time to fish fry for letters by most comfortable tweaking, adjusting, yours truly." ("Banshee Beat," Feels) I and exploring to eventually end up with don't know what I'm supposed to make of an album with some "pop" sensibilities. something like that. Most of the time the Listening to Animal Collective delve into lyrics seem to just be words for Portner that medium makes for a great record, but and Lennox to sing - more intended to it's no guarantee that their next album will be part of the auditory experience than to develop the sound they've cultivated here. have any intelligible meaning. But the In fact, there's not much hope of them pop sound of Merriweather Post Pavilion ever following any predictable trajectory. demands some unambiguous refrains, and It's refreshing for a band to h ave such a the result is lyrics that seem a little more wide-ranging sound, making every album coherent. The subconscious tensions and come as more or less a surprise. But for nighttime revelries of suburbia become me, it's just frustrating to have to wait themes. On "My Girls," Portner frets for Animal Collective to get a couple of over wanting a "proper house," singing Strawberry jams out of the way between "I don't mean to seem like I care about each Feels or Merriweather Post Pavilion.* �The Epoch Journal C/O St. John's College 60 College Ave. Annapolis, MD 2140 I � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Epoch Journal Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data paper Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 15 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Epoch, Volume III Issue 3 Description An account of the resource Volume III, Issue 4 of The Epoch Journal. Published in Spring 2009. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fryer-Biggs, Zachary (Editor-in-Chief) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College owns the rights to this publication. Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource Current events--Periodicals International relations--Periodicals World politics--Periodicals Economics--Periodicals Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EpochJournal_vol3_issue3 Student publication https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/a5db9ffa2b25d85aff19030ef7768984.mp4 5d7f5359c9f3dbb23fd47db4a41fee99 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College. During the Fall and Spring semesters, lectures are given on Friday nights. 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Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data mp4 Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 00:52:50 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Aristotle on the Impossibility of Defining Life Description An account of the resource Video recording of a lecture delivered on October 1, 2021, by Christopher Frey as part of the Formal Lecture Series. Dr. Frey is an Associate Professor in the Philosophy Department at the University of South Carolina. Dr. Frey describes his lecture: "What unites the millions of biological species that populate our universe and sets them apart from its inanimate remainder? Why should we consider activities as diverse as an amoeba dividing, a saffron crocus blooming, a Bengal tiger stalking its prey, and a human contemplating the heavens to be manifestations of a single thing, namely, life? This is one of the central questions Aristotle confronts in De Anima. He attempts to answer it in a familiar way: he provides a definition of life’s principle—the soul. But he is pessimistic about his purported definition’s adequacy. Life, Aristotle insists, cannot be defined properly. By his own lights, this renders any attempt to define soul, including his own, “foolish.” But what is it about life that makes definition impossible? And if we cannot define life, is there any unity at all to be found in the remarkable variety of ways that organisms pursue their lives?” Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Frey, Christopher C. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2021-10-01 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource A signed permission form has been received stating: "I hereby grant St. John's College permission to: Make an audiovisual recording of my lecture, and retain copies for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make an audiovisual recording of my lecture available online. Make a typescript copy of my lecture available for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make a typescript of my lecture available online." Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource mp4 Subject The topic of the resource Aristotle. De anima. Life Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Macfarland, Joseph C. Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Frey_Christopher_2021-10-01access Friday night lecture https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/2745243195d13f2e3564dbd078d26770.pdf eb1ceb1e6b9656bebc6ed954dec8ff8c PDF Text Text Hiding behind Geometry: Analysis and Synthesis in Descartes and Spinoza Lecture to be delivered at St. John’s College-Annapolis October 15, 2021 Joshua Parens Joshua Parens Dean, Braniff Graduate School Professor of Philosophy 1845 Northgate Dr. Irving, TX 75062 �1 Descartes, Hobbes, and Spinoza are the three early modern philosophers who are most famous for their imitations of features of ancient geometry, that is, Euclid, though none of them seems to follow in Euclid’s spirit. As Descartes writes in the Replies to the Second Objections to his Meditations, Euclidean synthesis, the gold standard against which Aristotle measured all modes of argumentation, is a method of compelling assent rather than a method of discovering the truth. Although I won’t touch on Hobbes in this lecture, I believe that the level of disingenuousness and obscurity surrounding the use of synthesis by all three of these authors is not widely appreciated. For an author so famous for both his pioneering of modern method and his emphasis on clarity and distinctness at least of perception, Descartes is remarkably ambiguous about what his method is in his most renowned statement on it, the Discourse on Method. The Discourse introduces his Essays, and one can gather a great deal more about what he means by analysis and synthesis from those Essays on Optics, Geometry, and Meteorology, especially the one on geometry, than from the Discourse on Method. Despite the greater clarity about the method evident in its application in the Essays, Descartes carried over some of his obscurity in the introductory Discourse to his Essays. Apparently, he was compelled to do so. In the final part of the Discourse, part 6, he explains how and why he decided not to publish his more comprehensive The World. (In comparison to the World, the Essays are piecemeal, avoiding anything like a clear portrait of . . . the world.) Descartes explains in part 6 of the Discourse that he wanted to avoid the fate of Galileo. Contrary to the impression modern scholarship brings to this inquiry, little becomes immediately apparent from a casual reading of the Discourse. Even if quite a bit is revealed by looking into the Essays, they are a mix of the mathematical and the physical. Consequently, they are or should be at least problematic for understanding what Descartes holds about method as it relates to his Meditations on First Philosophy or metaphysics. And Descartes gives hints that metaphysics is unlike math and physics in its methodological requirements even if he does not take this claim nearly as far as, say, Aristotle. �2 (In this lecture, I will refer frequently to Descartes’s Replies to the Second Objections to his Meditations, which is a sort of tail following the Meditations that makes of the Meditations a much more medieval looking work than it would otherwise have seemed to be because it turns it into something of a disputation, and disputed questions were common among medieval Christian authors.) In the Replies to the Second Objections, Descartes explicitly repudiates synthesis as a metaphysical method because it presupposes a ready grasp of the “primary notions.” In contrast, in Spinoza’s Ethics, which despite its title, begins as a work of metaphysics, he proceeds at least in part 1 synthetically—indeed, he doesn’t turn to use analysis until he reaches the so-called “Physical Digression” following proposition 13 of part 2. Despite the elaborateness of the Ethics, Spinoza nowhere provides a methodological work comparable to Descartes’s Discourse. That is, Spinoza nowhere gives a direct account of why he chose to use synthesis, despite Descartes’s apparent repudiation of it for metaphysics. A. Meyer’s Preface to Spinoza’s Descartes’s “Principles of Philosophy” The closest Spinoza gets to giving such an account is highly indirect. In one of the two works published during his lifetime, his Descartes’s “Principles of Philosophy,”1 Spinoza re-presents at least some of Descartes’s Principles of Philosophy, a relatively comprehensive textbook or handbook, in synthetic fashion. (Descartes seems to have written the Principles with an eye to displacing the Scholastic textbooks still widely studied in universities. This may also help explain why he gave such a medieval cast to the Meditations and its objections and replies.) Spinoza delegated to Ludwig Meyer the task of writing the Preface to his Descartes’s “Principles of Philosophy.” As Meyer explains in that 1 The other published work, his Theologico-Political Treatise, was published anonymously. �3 Preface, he requested that Spinoza re-present the Principles synthetically. And Meyer even quotes Descartes in the Replies to the Second Objections, explaining both the Euclidean features of synthesis and especially that it is suited to garnering assent “no matter how stubborn and contrary” the listener might be, thereby nearly paraphrasing Descartes’s assessment of synthesis both in the Discourse and the Replies to the Second Objections. This has struck Spinoza scholars as strange on a number of accounts. Edwin Curley has claimed that it is odd that Spinoza would present the Principles in this way, given that in the Conversation with Burman Descartes is supposed to have asserted that the Principles is already in synthetic form.2 Indeed, Curley goes on to wonder, but “this would imply that Spinoza misunderstood Descartes’ distinction between analysis and synthesis.” That is, surely Spinoza would not go to the trouble of presenting in synthetic form a work already in synthetic form, unless he were confused about the differences between analysis and synthesis. It’s worth noting at least in passing that not all scholars agree that the Principles is in fact synthetic, despite the claims of the Conversation with Burman, a conversation of which some scholars question the value.3 So it is at least possible that both Curley and Burman didn’t understand the distinction, or, what I will try to show eventually, that Descartes was intentionally confusing about when, if ever, he was using synthetic method. An additional thought must occur to any thoughtful reader of Meyer’s Preface, leaving aside the confusion surrounding method in Spinoza’s Descartes’s “Principles,” it’s important to question Curley’s leap to the conclusion that Spinoza didn’t understand the difference between analysis and synthesis as conceived by Descartes. After all, it was Meyer who requested that the Principles be put into synthetic form, which would seem then to raise questions about his understanding of analysis and synthesis. Yet it was Meyer who reviewed key differences between analysis and synthesis in the Preface to Spinoza’s 2 Edwin Curley, ed. The Collected Writings of Spinoza, vol. 1 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 224n1. Daniel Garber and Lesley Cohen, “A Point of Order: Analysis, Synthesis, and Descartes’s Principles,” Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie 64 (1982): 136-47, esp. 138. 3 �4 Descartes’s “Principles”! Could Meyer really be confused about the difference between analysis and synthesis, despite highlighting at least some of their differences? Now, some scholars have insisted that even though Spinoza read and approved Meyer’s Preface, making alterations regarding other features of the Preface, Spinoza must have been confused about the difference between analysis and synthesis, since he signed off on the inclusion of Meyer’s comments about it in the preface to the only work he published in his own name during his lifetime. I suspect an underlying reason Curley assumes that Spinoza was confused about these differences is that to agree that synthesis is intended to compel assent is to agree not only that what he is writing in Descartes’s “Principles” but also and more importantly Spinoza’s use of synthesis in the Ethics has this same purpose. As Richard Kennington notes, it makes sense that Spinoza would have published his Descartes’s “Principles” in synthetic form because it compels the assent of the reader—and Spinoza himself does not agree with much that Descartes argued in the Principles.4 It would hardly then make sense for Spinoza to use a method of discovery such as analysis to present Descartes’s Principles. It is almost as if Spinoza were demonstrating in writing Descartes’s “Principles” what one can achieve in the way of persuading others of things whose truth one does not oneself really believe, but more specifically by means of the use of synthetic form. Of course, this leaves one wondering why Spinoza would have used synthesis in his own Ethics, assuming, as I believe we must, that he was well aware that synthesis is a method of compelling assent! At this point, one might hope to turn to Descartes for some clarification of the distinction between analysis and synthesis. And it would be my preference as a lecturer to be able to clarify the distinction; however, as I already implied in my opening remarks, careful attention to the relevant texts yields little clarity. Let us begin, though, at least, with what can be determined with some clarity, before proceeding further into the bowels of obscurity. What is clear cannot be stated without reference 4 Richard Kennington, On Modern Origins (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2004), 215-16. �5 beyond Descartes to Bacon. I apologize for adding to complexity here by bringing in yet another author; however, reference to Bacon will make it easier to state what is clear regarding analysis and synthesis. B. The Baconian and Cartesian Attack on the Syllogism and Descartes’s Pivot to Analysis in the Rules and Essays Descartes does prefer analysis to synthesis as a means of discovery, at least in some sciences. In doing so, he is following out an attack on the syllogism first set forth by Bacon in his Great Instauration and New Organon.5 Without referring by name to Bacon, in his relatively early Rules for the Direction of the Mind, Descartes agrees with Bacon that the problem with the primary unit of synthesis, the syllogism, is that everything rests on the discovery of the middle term, that is, on the definable forms or natures of things (Rule 13).6 In so rejecting forms, Bacon set us on the path away from them toward modern laws of nature.7 Descartes’s elaboration of analysis in the Essays is key to the emergence of said laws. And it is not too much of an exaggeration to say that he seals the fate of forms in his Meditations, when, as Richard Kennington has shown, in the opening two Meditations Descartes employs doubt to wipe away not only forms and natures but also the premodern reliance on opinion as a dependable starting point of inquiry.8 In turning away from forms or natures, Descartes is turning toward quantifiable relations in lieu of said forms. That this is Descartes’s intent is evident as early as Rule 6 and confirmed in the Essays. The turn toward quantifiable relations depends on the use of the sort of analysis on display in the Geometry. In lieu of the middle term, Descartes seems to place the unit—a unit which, though absolute in one series, may well be relative in another (Rule 6). With the unit in hand, and two known quantities, one 5 Bacon, New Atlantis and Great Instauration, Jerry Weinberger ed., (Croft Classics, 1980, 1989), 21-3; The New Organon, Lisa Jardine and Michael Silverthorne, eds., (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), aphor. 1319, pp. 35-36. 6 If necessary, insert here the classic example of the syllogism highlighting the role of the middle term: All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. 7 Kennington, Modern Origins, 39-41. 8 Cf. Kennington, Modern Origins, 195 with 171, 176. �6 can of course discover a fourth unknown quantity, which we signify with some letter such as x, as Descartes already adumbrates in the Rules (Rules 13 and 14) and displays in the opening of the Geometry. Analysis due to its focus on quantification and relation is especially suitable to both mathematics and modern (that is, mathematical) physics. Of course, Aristotle, despite his recognition that the logical form of synthesis on the model of geometry is the gold standard of demonstrative argument, did not attempt to study natural beings in physics using number. Aristotle’s refusal of this integration of math into physics flows from his focus instead on natures or forms. With this broad background on the modern attack on the syllogism (that is, synthesis), the pivot to analysis, and the importation of number into math and physics, let us turn more directly to analysis. Is analysis applicable in any setting other than those that lend themselves to quantification—above all, is it suitable for metaphysics? Ultimately, I believe the answer to that question will be “no,” despite things Descartes says to the contrary. What then are we to make of the arguments regarding analysis, as a method of discovery, and synthesis, as a method of compelling assent? Here, I believe the parallels between Descartes and Bacon are very useful. Much as Bacon boosted “induction,” so Descartes boosted “analysis.” I must set aside the complicated task of attempting to explicate the meaning of “induction” in Bacon. It suffices for us that induction and analysis are both presented as the replacements or supplanters of syllogistic synthesis or, as it is often called, deduction. Yet the works in which the arguments are made against the syllogism and for induction or analysis employ if not demonstrative forms of synthesis like Euclid, then at least dialectical and rhetorical cousins of synthesis. Such forms of dialectic and rhetoric for promoting new methods are not limited to such promotion. Rather, I hope to show that Descartes may well use a mixture of synthesis (or old-fashioned demonstration), dialectic, and rhetoric in a work like the Meditations while passing it off as analytic—at least in part to promote the new method in the context of math and physics. To begin to show this, I �7 must wade once again into the waters of unclarity, that is, Descartes’s various accounts of analysis and synthesis. C. Descartes’s writings on analysis and synthesis: Discourse on Method, Synopsis of the Second Meditation, Second Objections to the Meditations, Replies to the Second Objections Very briefly, in the Discourse on Method, part two, Descartes renews the attack on the syllogism of the Rules as of little use “for learning [rather] than for explaining to others the things one already knows or even . . . for speaking without judgement about matters of which one is ignorant.”9 Then he touches on the virtues of the analysis of the ancients—which he had celebrated in Rule 4, as a secret method which they kept hidden behind a synthetic surface (AT 10: 372-4). And he touches on the virtues of modern algebra, while acknowledging some drawbacks even of analysis and algebra, only to conclude that he seeks “some other method comprising the advantages of these three subjects [syllogism or synthesis, analysis, and algebra] but free from their defects.” This extremely hazy declaration is then followed by his pronouncement of his famous four rules, which are so general as to find loud echoes back in the Rules. For our purposes, none of these rules clears up the sense that having previously championed analysis, he will now champion a hazier mixture of elements drawn from analysis, synthesis, and algebra. As I’ve already indicated and many of you have already seen, the Geometry, which follows the Discourse in the Essays, is quite clearly a mixture of analysis and algebra, excluding at least for the most part synthesis. What role synthesis might any longer be afforded is not obvious from the Essays, except the obvious derivative role that dialectic and rhetoric play in the promotional arguments for the method in the Discourse. When we turn to the Meditations, we begin a journey into greater lack of clarity. Unlike the Scholastics who used distinctions to increase precision, eventually we will see Descartes introduce 9 Here I quote from the standard Cambridge University Press edition by Cottingham, Stoothoff, and Murdoch (hereafter, CSM; Cambridge UP, 1985), vol. 1. �8 further distinctions into the contrast between analysis and synthesis in a way that only seems to increase confusion. Very briefly, I will touch on the three discussions of method in the Synopsis of the Second Meditation, the Second Objections, and the Replies to the Second Objections. In the Synopsis of the Second Meditation, Descartes states, “the only order (ordinem) which I could follow was that normally employed by geometers, namely to set out all the premises on which a desired proposition depends, before drawing any conclusions about it” (AT 7: 12-13; CSM 12). This reference to the “order [of the] geometers” appears to be a reference to synthesis, since analysis does not begin with the setting out of premises—though it may be intended to cover both synthesis and analysis, as we will see. When we turn to the Second Objections, written or at least gathered by Mersenne (more on Mersenne later), we see that at least in the estimation of Mersenne or those whose comments he gathered, what Descartes has written in the Meditations has fallen well short of geometrical order. The Second Objections conclude, “it would be worthwhile if you set out the entire argument in geometrical fashion (more geometrico), starting from a number of definitions, postulates and axioms. You are highly experienced in employing this method, and it would enable you to fill the mind of each reader so that he could see everything as it were at a single glance, and be permeated with awareness of the divine power” (AT 7: 128; CSM 92). Here, Mersenne seems to be describing the experience that readers of Euclid have, together with a dash of pious genuflection. In Euclid’s Elements, as a work of geometry at least, synthesis has less the feel of a method of compelling assent, as Descartes and Meyer characterize it, than a method of making insights intuitively obvious. Perhaps that is because the “primary notions” in geometry can be immediately grasped, unlike physics, not to mention metaphysics. When it comes time for Descartes to make good on Mersenne’s request, in his Replies to the Second Objections, he refers to the “geometrical manner of writing (modo scribendi geometrico), �9 namely, the order (ordinem), and the method (or form or manner) of demonstration (rationem demonstrandi)” (AT 7: 155; CSM 110). In other words, he takes what Mersenne identified as one method, alluding clearly to synthesis, and he treats it as a genus of a geometrical way of writing which can be divided into an ordo and a ratio, that is, an order and a form or manner of writing or arguing.10 Descartes then appears to attempt to explain what the geometrical order is. It is a matter of making sure that one has “put forward first [what] must be known entirely without the aid of what comes later.” That synthesis always does this is obvious. (Here, Descartes seems at least to be starting out with “order” as he had used it in the Synopsis.) Whether analysis follows such order is less clear. After all, as a method of discovery, it does not start by defining principles, and it is characterized more by searching for a something which one does not yet know. It has about it an air of conjecture or hypothesis that we are familiar with from the modern sciences that would eventually derive in one way or another from Cartesian analysis. However, even in traditions that privilege synthesis, as did most of premodern Western philosophy, there are important exceptions to this order (that is, putting forward first what must be known entirely without the aid of what comes later), at least outside of mathematics. The most obvious example of an exception is what Descartes will seem to allude to only when he pivots to geometric form (ratio) rather than order (ordo). I refer to the very prominent role played by what was for centuries of the Latin tradition referred to as a posteriori argumentation, that is, arguing from effects back to causes. Such argumentation prevents one from employing synthesis strictly speaking. At least for Aristotle, though synthesis or apodictic demonstration was the gold standard, in works like the Physics and the Metaphysics, he is rarely in a position to inquire using synthesis in its pure form as inquiry from causes to their effects. Instead, he employs dialectic, starting with an interrogation of 10 Cottingham’s choice of “method” to translate “ratio” is not helpful. “Form” is the suggestion of Kennington (Modern Origins, 206) and “manner” is that of Curley (“Analysis in the Meditations: The Quest for Clear and Distinct Ideas,” Essays on Descartes’ “Meditations,” Amélie Oksenberg Rorty, ed. [University of California Press, 1986], 153-76, esp. 153. �10 received opinions and then turning to the effects which are first for us—rather than attempting to start with the causes, as one is able to do in mathematics. Here we’re reminded, on the one hand, of why geometrical order cannot but seem to be a reference to synthesis rather than analysis, despite Descartes’s Geometry. On the other hand, when Descartes pledges allegiance to geometrical order in the Synopsis of the Second Meditation, most readers familiar with his oeuvres would tend to assume that he has in mind the geometrical order of his analytic work, the Geometry. Already, synthesis appears to presuppose too much foreknowledge of the primary notions for it to be applicable to metaphysics, and analysis seems to presuppose a focus on quantification and relations unsuited to metaphysics. When Descartes first declared his intention to follow ‘geometrical order’ in the Synopsis, we thought we knew what he meant. But by now it has become obvious that at the time we did not (and still likely do not) know what he meant. Having discussed ordo quite briefly in the Replies, Descartes then turns to the form (ratio) of demonstration (Demonstrandi autem ratio) and immediately subdivides it into analysis and synthesis. (It is worth noting that, when discussing geometrical “order,” since he did not make direct reference to analysis or synthesis, Descartes led us to believe that both should equally “put forward first what must be known entirely without the aid of what comes later.”) Descartes’s treatment of the “form” of demonstration is so vague and opaque that I will quote it at length and then attempt to make sense of it, noting in advance that the translator I quote, namely, John Cottingham, translator of what appears in the standard Cambridge UP edition, has two lengthy notes indicating that he too is far less than certain about what Descartes means: Analysis shows the true way by means of which the thing in question was discovered methodically [methodice] and as it were a priori [it is here that JC inserts his first long note, after the following comma], so that if the reader is willing to follow it and give sufficient attention to all points, he will make the things his own and understand it just as perfectly as if he had discovered it for himself. But this method contains nothing to compel belief [credendum impellat] in an argumentative or inattentive reader; for if he fails to attend even to the smallest point, he will not see the necessity of the conclusion. Moreover there are many truths which— �11 although it is vital to be aware of them—this method often scarcely mentions, since they are transparently clear to anyone who gives them his attention. Synthesis, by contrast, employs a directly opposite method [viam oppositem] where the search is, as it were, a posteriori (though the proof itself is often more a priori than in the analytic method) [and it is here that JC inserts his second long note, after the following period]. It [that is, synthesis] demonstrates the conclusions clearly and employs a long series of definitions, postulates, axioms, theorems and problems, so that if anyone denies one of the conclusions it can be shown at once that it is contained in what has gone before, and hence the reader, however argumentative or stubborn he may be, is compelled to give his assent [assensionem extorqueat]. However, this method is not as satisfying as the method of analysis [both uses of the term “method” here are interpolated from viam above into, sed non ut altera satisfacit], nor does it engage the minds of those who are eager to learn, since it does not show how the thing in question was discovered. (AT 7:155-56; CSM 110-11) There is more to quote here but let us attend for now to the surprisingly unclear picture Descartes here paints. Cottingham points us immediately to the troubling passages. The only technical terms used in this passage, aside from analysis and synthesis, are a priori and a posteriori. Characterizing analysis as a priori first, Descartes goes on to give an utterly vacuous explication of what he has in mind: “if the reader is willing to follow it and give sufficient attention to all points, he will make the things his own and understand it just as perfectly as if he had discovered it for himself.” The only thing that makes this smack of analysis rather than synthesis is the reference to “discovery.” But what is meant by “discovery” is not explained. Perhaps Descartes expects us to go back and rummage through the posthumously published Rules to understand what he means. But even were we to do that, it would not give us any purchase on what Descartes means in characterizing analysis as “a priori.” Regarding this opaque use of a priori, Cottingham acknowledges that Descartes’s use of it “corresponds neither with the post-Leibnizian sense” familiar to many from Kant (as that which is prior to experience in reality or to use an anachronistic term “ontologically” if not temporally) “nor with the medieval, Thomist sense,” which I already adumbrated as proceeding from cause to effect or from principles to conclusions. Cottingham speculates in a footnote to his translation, “What Descartes may mean [in referring to analysis as a priori]. . . is that it starts from what is epistemically prior, i.e. from what is prior in the ‘order of discovery’ followed by the meditator” (CSM 110n2). If this were the case, then starting from �12 the cogito would seem to be what Descartes has in mind to characterize analysis in the Meditations: the cogito is first in the order of discovery. Yet this merely leads to other questions. What relation if any is there between the clear picture we gain of analysis from the Geometry and the process in the Meditations? In the Meditations, what is the x that we seek to discover? What are the two known things, and what is the unit? One thing is certain: God cannot be the unit, since what serves as the unit may be absolute in one series while being relative in another. A quick reconsideration of the differences between the ancient syllogism and modern analysis reveals the following troubling fact: if God is central in the Meditations, one of the key effects of modern analysis through its displacement of forms and natures is to eliminate the anchoring of inquiry in the search for a first cause. Like Bacon before him, the method of analysis, at least as it is practiced in the Essays points away from the search for a first cause. Analysis like induction is about laws of nature in the modern sense, which describe quantifiable relations among quantifiable things, no longer about the search for a first cause. Leaving these bigger questions aside, there are more immediate questions: Even if the turn to the cogito, as the turn to what is epistemically first, seems analytic, can any of the rest that follows in the Meditations be described as a priori in this sense of epistemically prior? Is the turn toward God to undergird the cogito a discovery? And when Descartes then pivots fully to his proofs of God are they analytic? As has been shown by many scholars, despite the great novelty of many of Descartes’s claims about the idea of God, especially God’s infinitude, and its role in proving God’s existence, the order (or is it the form?!) of those three proofs of God’s existence is either a priori or a posteriori depending on which one is referring to, according to the parlance of premodern thought against which Descartes was working.11 Indeed, elements of his proofs are quite old, as he already hinted was likely to be the case back in the Meditations’ Epistle Dedicatory to the Sorbonne (AT 7:3-4; CSM 4). Finally, it’s worth noting 11 See Edwin M. Curley, Descartes against the Skeptics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978), 125-6, 135-6, 141-2. �13 that this talk about what is epistemically prior brings to mind the Aristotelian distinction between what is first for us and what is first by nature. But that Aristotelian distinction at least presupposes the usefulness of recourse to generally accepted opinion. Descartes has clearly repudiated any such appeal to opinion in Meditations 1 and 2, before turning in Meditations 3 and 5 to the proofs of God’s existence. The real meaning of Cottingham’s “epistemically prior” then proves to be more than a bit challenging. By the end of this first quoted paragraph, we’re far from confident about Cottingham’s attempt to make sense of what Descartes means by characterizing analysis as a priori. This unhelpful initial paragraph is then followed by the tortuous twists and turns of the next one. Much that Descartes says here about synthesis, its use of definitions, axioms, etc., squares with what we know of synthesis based on our experience with Euclid. But the opening sentence that synthesis “employs a directly opposite method [viam oppositem] where the search [quaesitam] is, as it were, a posteriori (though the proof [probatio] itself is often more a priori than in the analytic method)” leaves us tied in knots. Is the distinction between “search” and “proof” yet another distinction from that between order and form, between analysis and synthesis, and between a priori and a posteriori? What contrast does Descartes intend in claiming that though the “search [quaesitam]” is a posteriori, the “proof [probatio]” is often more a priori? If only “search,” especially, and “proof,” to a lesser extent, had clearer, more technical meanings, what Descartes had in mind might be somewhat more evident. Once again, Cottingham offers gingerly a suggestion about what Descartes “may mean” in suggesting that synthesis is more a posteriori in its “search,” namely, that synthesis starts from premises “which are epistemically posterior . . . in the order of discovery” (CSM 111n1). It almost goes without saying that the sense in which synthetic proofs are more a priori fits with the premodern or Thomist sense that Descartes’s readers would have been familiar with. If Descartes were really offering a new view of the a priori/a posteriori distinction as Cottingham suggests, one might have thought that Descartes as the thinker who emphasizes clarity and distinctness of perception and places a premium on the novelty of �14 his method would have insisted on being clearer about his method, unless he made a conscious decision to be opaque. I believe that the level of opacity of Descartes’s prose here suggests that he is indeed consciously choosing to be opaque. In the following paragraphs, Descartes affirms more clearly than he ever does in the Meditations on First Philosophy themselves that the method (via) he employed there is analysis. He justifies that claim by asserting that though synthesis is well suited to geometry because its primary notions “accord with the use of our senses,” it is not suited to metaphysics—a claim I’ve already alluded to before. Yet he hesitates in making this claim. He writes, In metaphysics . . . there is nothing that causes so much effort as making our perception of the primary notions clear and distinct. Admittedly, they are by their nature as evident as, or even more evident than, the primary notions which the geometers study; but they conflict with many preconceived opinions derived from the senses which we have gotten into the habit of holding from our earliest years, and so only those who really concentrate and meditate and withdraw their minds from corporeal things, so far as is possible, will achieve perfect knowledge of them. (AT 7:157; CSM 111) Note here the tension between what Descartes argues about the ‘clarity’ of the primary notions as opposed to how “evident” they are. Wherein lies the implied distinction between “making clear and distinct” and “being evident”? Leaving yet one more unclear dichotomy to the side, one of the most obvious differences between the Meditations and nearly every other work of metaphysics ever written, with the possible exception of Thomas Aquinas’s De ente et essentia, is its length. I can think of no other work that has had so much effect but rested on so little argumentation. (Here, it’s worth considering Heidegger’s denial that Descartes was seriously innovative in his metaphysics, arguing instead that he was quite derivative from his medieval predecessors.) This fact of the Meditations brevity is directly connected to what I consider to be one of its most important novel features, namely, Descartes’s reliance on the clarity and distinctness of our perception of the idea of God to prove that God exists. This move enables �15 Descartes to vault himself over the tasks of explaining what he means by substance and being12—thus Heidegger’s complaints—not to mention really proving God’s existence, which in many works of metaphysics take place only after hundreds of preceding pages of argument such as in Aristotle’s Metaphysics. (It’s worth noting here that the brevity of Thomas’s De ente derives from the fact that it adds very important and novel distinctions to Aristotle’s, but it does not wholly reconceive philosophy, as does Descartes, even if only implicitly in the Meditations.) Though the Meditations achieves a radical transformation in a short span, Descartes also never really attempts to prove the clarity and distinctness of our idea of God. It is merely assumed. All this leaves one doubting how serious Descartes is being when he acknowledges in the Replies to the Second Objections that it is the difficulty of grasping the primary notions of metaphysics that precludes the use of synthesis. It is at this point that we cannot but start to wonder whether Descartes is sincere in claiming that the Meditations are analytic. Could it be that he claims this to lend rhetorical support to the use of analysis in math and physics? One thing seems likely: we should not take Descartes’s word for it that the Meditations is truly analytic. Even back in the Discourse on Method we were led to believe that his method would be some sort of hodgepodge of analysis, synthesis, and algebra. Could it be that Descartes must insist that the Meditations is analytic especially in the face of a demand like Mersenne’s in the Second Objections that Descartes produce a synthetic version of the arguments of the Meditations? Might not Mersenne’s request for a synthetic version of the Meditations boost the air of discovery about that work—thus further encouraging generation after generation of metaphysicians to dispute about the depths of the Meditations? An odd structural similarity exists between the situations of Descartes and Spinoza, which I believe undercuts the widely held view that Descartes knew what he was about regarding analysis and 12 See Kennington, Modern Origins, 165. �16 synthesis, while Spinoza was confused. Descartes was asked by his unique booster and ally Mersenne to present the Meditations in synthetic form—a work that may well already have synthetic features, despite Descartes’s own assertions against synthesis in the Reply to the Second Objections. Spinoza was similarly asked by his unique booster and ally Meyer to present Descartes’s Principles of Philosophy in synthetic form—a work that at least according to the Conversation with Burman was already synthetic. Both Descartes and Spinoza had many admirers and correspondents, but both also had only one correspondent who was much more than that. Each of these correspondents, Mersenne and Meyer, was on relatively intimate terms with his respective philosopher, and each was far more than a dabbler in philosophy, even if far from the rank of the philosopher he assists. The significance I attach to these parallelisms is that it seems extremely unlikely that both of these followers made these requests to their respective geniuses wholly unprompted. (Indeed, Meyer’s Preface almost makes it sound as if he had asked Spinoza to render Descartes’s Principles synthetically. Yet he also implies that Spinoza had already done so on his own initiative!)13 One thing is certain: these requests provided an opportunity to make more confusing rather than clearer what the true methodological statuses are of the Meditations, the Principles, and the approach of both thinkers to metaphysics. But why? That is, what purpose could all this obscurity serve? Why pass off the Meditations as more of a work of discovery or analysis than it really is? And what should we make of the fact that the Ethics, especially part 1, is primarily synthetic and primarily intended to compel assent? In the case of the Meditations, I believe that Descartes wants the majority of his audience to believe that they’re engaged in discovery not only to bolster the status of discovery practiced elsewhere by Descartes—that is, I believe that he intends the Meditations as something of a defense of philosophy, as it is practiced in his physical inquiries—but also to bolster the status of the Meditations, as if it were a radically new form 13 See Curley, Collected Works of Spinoza, vol. 1, p. 227. And cf. Kennington, Modern Origins, 215, �17 of philosophy worthy of unprecedented attention. For those intrepid enough to see past the insinuations of discovery, the most thoughtful reader is challenged to read the Meditations with extreme care and attention to its use of synthesis, dialectic, and rhetoric. In the case of the Ethics, I believe that Spinoza wants the majority of his audience to adopt new views about God or Nature before they realize they’ve adopted them. He uses synthesis to compel assent to a new conception of God by reconceiving definitions of key terms such as substance, attribute, and mode. The typical reader on Spinoza’s time who picks up the Ethics brings certain primarily medieval preconceptions about what is God and the meaning of these key concepts. Spinoza relies on these preconceptions as his point of departure. These are the “primary notions” that his audience brings without clarity and as baggage. Spinoza uses synthesis to compel assent to a new understanding of the primary notions—in effect “deconstructing” (please forgive my use of this overused word) their understanding of these key concepts. At least in the case of Spinoza, if one wanted to approach his philosophy in a more hospitable way, one might want to consider studying his Theologico-Political Treatise first or rather than the Ethics, because the TPT sets forth the aims even of the Ethics far more directly: namely, to displace the authority of both the Bible and the prevailing revealed theologies and to establish the right to inquire freely. Even though the TPT is not a purely analytic writing, by steering clear of insincere imitation of Euclid, Spinoza gives the novice a better chance of understanding his ultimate aims. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College. During the Fall and Spring semesters, lectures are given on Friday nights. Items include audio and video recordings and typescripts.<br /><br />For more information, and a schedule of upcoming lectures, please visit the <strong><a href="http://www.sjc.edu/programs-and-events/annapolis/formal-lecture-series/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">St. John's College website</a></strong>.  <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Formal Lecture Series" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=5&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection.<br /><br />A growing number of lecture recordings are also available on the St. John's College (Annapolis) Lectures podcast. Visit <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/st-johns-college-annapolis-lectures/id1695157772">Apple Podcasts</a> or <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6GDsIRqC8SWZ28AY72BsYM?si=f2ecfa9e247a456f" title="Spotify">Spotify</a> to listen and subscribe. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context formallectureseriesannapolis Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data pdf Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 18 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Hiding behind Geometry: Analysis and Synthesis in Descartes and Spinoza Description An account of the resource Typescript of a lecture delivered on October 15, 2021, by Joshua Parens as part of the Formal Lecture Series. Dr. Parens is the Dean of Braniff Graduate School of Liberal Arts, the Director of the Institute of Philosophic Studies, the Philosophy Graduate Director, and Professor of Philosophy and Politics at the University of Dallas. Dr. Parens describes his lecture: "Spinoza published only two works in his lifetime: his Theologico-Political Treatise anonymously and his synthetic presentation of Descartes's Principles of Philosophy, called Descartes's "Principles of Philosophy," the sole writing to which Spinoza attached his name. Despite knowing that Descartes claimed philosophy, especially metaphysics, should be presented only analytically, Spinoza presented most of his Ethics (published posthumously) especially its metaphysical parts in synthetic form. This lecture will explore the many, at times conflicting, things Descartes wrote about analysis and synthesis, consider what he means by them, and attempt to determine what motivated Spinoza to present the Ethics as he did." Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Parens, Joshua, 1961- Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2021-10-15 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource A signed permission form has been received stating: "I hereby grant St. John's College permission to: Make a typescript of my lecture available online." Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource Spinoza, Benedictus de, 1632-1677. Ethica. Descartes, René, 1596-1650. Principia philosophiae. Analysis (Philosophy) Metaphysics Spinoza, Benedictus de, 1632-1677. Tractatus theologico-politicus. Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Parens_Joshua_2021-10-15_Typescript Friday night lecture https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/241c097068e331e110888fe7733c0df3.pdf b0a5e43d84680c6e4be9d6adf3f7e00e PDF Text Text Commencement Address St. John’s College, Annapolis given William Pastille material may be protected by law (Title 17 U.S. Code) At every moment, Life demands that we choose between Love and Strife, between the powers that bind and those that loose. If we do not hear the urgency of this demand, it is because we do not live fully in the present moment. Most of our attention streams away toward the remembered past or imagined future, relaxing our bond with the vivid Here and Now until we drift too far off to hear the voice of Life above a whisper. But today, with music, ceremony, and speeches, we try to dam the flood of inattention, to focus on the Now, on this single moment, which is both ending and beginning for all qf you who are about to receive degrees. If you search your feelings in this moment, you will find two commingled emotions: melancholy — for all that is past and gone, for a way of Efe that can never be relived - and expectancy — for all that is yet to come, for a way of life that you are hoping to create. Please remember this composite feeling, because it is the feeling that lives in the heart of every Now. When we are not experiencing this twofold emotion, we are not really in touch with the present, but have allowed our habits of inattention to separate us from the Now. In this state of habitual inattention, we nevertheless carry on the daily work of Efe: people are fed, cities and empires built, careers made and unmade, children reared, and academies of higher learning established for the purpose of passing knowledge and tradition from generation to generation. At this ceremony, and at thousands of others Eke it to be held across the nation today and in the coming weeks, those of us who serve and support the academy will confer upon you and upon your counterparts at other institutions the outward signs that we have discharged our duty, and that you, by completing rigorous courses of study, have increased in knowledge and learning. In thousands of speeches we will extol your virtues; we will praise you for your fortitude, perseverance, and intelligence; we will encourage you to develop your talents further, and to fulfil your promise; we will impress upon you the solemn obligation that you pass the baton of learning to the next generation; and we will express our pride in your achievements, for we honor the devotion, the toil, and the sacrifice that nourished your success. It is altogether fitting and proper for us to do this. But even on such a congratulatory occasion, a decent regard for truth and for honest self-criticism compels me to speak of failure as well as success — my failure, the failure of my generation, and of all who consider themselves teachers, mentors, and leaders in all walks of Efe. For the truth is that we have failed you. We have failed you because, being human, the better �angels of our nature are often bested by the worse; and because, being consequently inconstant, we preach ideals that we foil to honor in deeds; and because, being consequently hypocritical, we are forced to hide painful truths from ourselves; and because, being consequently ignorant, we hand down to you truth and falsehood mixed indiscriminately in unknown proportions. Among the falsehoods which we have given you to believe far too easily is this: that knowledge is an unqualified good. It is no such thing. For insofar as knowledge is power, it corrupts as power corrupts; and insofar as it is taken to be an unqualified good, it corrupts surreptitiously. Knowledge can ally itself with the slightest weakness of character and with any unexamined prejudice, transmuting unjust, intolerant, or self-centered attitudes into the figures of intelligence and ignorance: a latent racism, sexism, or class prejudice can manifest itself as an empirical observation that this or that individual is just not as intelligent as we. Egotism, above all, joins readily with knowledge, leading to the eihpirical observation that no one is quite as intelligent as we, and to the logical conclusion that everyone needs to be inoculated with ample doses of our own personal wisdom. You have witnessed something of this here, in the microcosm of the classroom, whenever I or one of my colleagues have used our familiarity with the books on the program or our knowledge of other sources as unfair advantages to attain a position of power in discussion, or to maintain a tenor of authority, or to sustain our own sense of intellectual superiority, perhaps going so far as to be dismissive, even rude, to students or to other tutors whom we regard as less knowledgeable, less experienced, or less sagacious than ourselves. Such behavior clearly creates estrangement and disaffection, scattering seeds of Strife about the world; it can only be the work of our worse angels. And yet I fear that some of you admire the ability to wield knowledge as a form of power, and are planning to master the skill through fbrther schooling. I earnestly hope that my fear is misplaced; I hope all of you understand that having and using such a skill is not worth the risk of planting a single seed of Strife in a single human soul. If the temptation to brandish knowledge as a weapon can infiltrate even here, where we have an official rhetoric that cautions us against the danger, how much harm is it doing out there, in classrooms and boardrooms, in factories and chambers of government where no such caution exists? - where knowledge is valued precisely and only for its fearsome aspect of power? In the world in which we live, knowledge consorts with Strife; and the belief that knowledge is an unqualified good has precluded your seeking out the one force able to Uberate knowledge from the dominion of Strife: Only Love can conquer Strife. page 2 �Only Love can render knowledge harmless. Only Love can transform thought and sensibility into wisdom and compassion. Only Love can bind the separate moments of existence into a whole, meaningful life. But we have become such children of Strife that we no longer understand the universal application of Love. Because Love always involves submission to deep and overpowering feeling, we scrutinize it fearfully from within the protective cage of our current conception of rationality, which is, on the whole, a heartless, soulless intellectualism. Love requires the courage to hazard sentimentality; for the harm done by sentimentality - which can, after all, be educated, broadened, and elevated — is very light compared to the harm done by fear of sentimentality — which, like all fear, is an implacable agent of Strife. Love requires us to feel deeply» and to be carried away by feeling. Fortunately, there is always nearby one thing — the present moment — with which we can practice our ability to love. If we can learn to love the Now, which is to live fully in the present that is always with us, then the unifying force of Love will always be close at hand to shield us from the divisive force of Strife. And we are already prepared halfway, because we know the heart of the Now, we know the twofold feeling of melancholy and expectancy. To make a beginning, we must carry the memory of that feeling with us at all times; we must cultivate that feeling until the poignancy and fragility of the moment swells in our hearts, catches in our throats, brings tears to our eyes. Then comes the hard part — we must give ourselves over completely to the feeling welling up from within and to the moment embracing us from without, until we seem almost to forget our own existence. Because this is the essence of Love: sublation of self in the enveloping presence of the beloved. If you can love the moment this intensely — as Penelope loved Odysseus, as Dante loved Beatrice, as you loved when you first fell madly in love — then your knowledge will work no injury, nor will the seeds of Strife take root in your soul; and the failings of your teachers, mentors, and leaders will be redeemed. For Love makes all hurt as thou^ it had not been. At every moment. Life demands that we choose between Love and Strife. For the sake of the world in which you were raised, for your own sakes, and for the sake of the world to come, which you will help to fashion: please, please, please - choose Love, � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Commencement Programs and Addresses Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Description An account of the resource Addresses given at commencement and programs of events related to, and including, the annual commencement ceremonies at St. John's College. Includes both the undergraduate and Graduate Institute commencements. <br /><br />The College Archives holds programs and/or addresses for the following years:<br /> <ul> <li>1796</li> <li>1835-1836</li> <li>1842</li> <li>1852</li> <li>1856-1857</li> <li>1870</li> <li>1878</li> <li>1880</li> <li>1890</li> <li>1893</li> <li>1895</li> <li>1897</li> <li>1907</li> <li>1910-1918</li> <li>1920-1924</li> <li>1928-1929</li> <li>1932</li> <li>1936-1937</li> <li>1939-1945</li> <li>1947-present  </li> </ul> Click on <strong><a title="Commencement Programs and Addresses" href="http://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=18&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the Commencement Programs and Addresses Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context commencementprograms Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data paper Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 3 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Commencement Address, Spring 1998 Description An account of the resource Typescript of the commencement address given on May 17, 1998 by William Pastille at the end of the Spring 1998 semester in Annapolis, MD. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pastille, William Alfred, 1954- Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1998-05-17 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource A signed permission form has been received stating, "I hereby grant St. John’s College permission to: make typescript copies of my event available for circulation and archival preservation at the St. John’s College Greenfield Library. Make a copy the typescript of my event available online." Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource Love Presence (Philosophy) Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Pastille_William_1998-05-17_Typescript Commencement Tutors https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/ff57fa84fe678410fe660cc19fa0bedd.mp4 259b96598b6c421095a234b581a26987 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College. During the Fall and Spring semesters, lectures are given on Friday nights. Items include audio and video recordings and typescripts.<br /><br />For more information, and a schedule of upcoming lectures, please visit the <strong><a href="http://www.sjc.edu/programs-and-events/annapolis/formal-lecture-series/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">St. John's College website</a></strong>.  <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Formal Lecture Series" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=5&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection.<br /><br />A growing number of lecture recordings are also available on the St. John's College (Annapolis) Lectures podcast. Visit <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/st-johns-college-annapolis-lectures/id1695157772">Apple Podcasts</a> or <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6GDsIRqC8SWZ28AY72BsYM?si=f2ecfa9e247a456f" title="Spotify">Spotify</a> to listen and subscribe. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context formallectureseriesannapolis Moving Image A series of visual representations imparting an impression of motion when shown in succession. Examples include animations, movies, television programs, videos, zoetropes, or visual output from a simulation. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data mp4 Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 00:50:36 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource "We the Heroes" or "We the People?" Leadership in the Homeric Epic Description An account of the resource Video recording of a lecture delivered on September 24, 2021, by Johannes Haubold as part of the Formal Lecture Series. Dr. Haubold is a Professor of Classics at Princeton University. Dr. Haubold describes his lecture: "This lecture investigates some fundamental problems of leadership as they emerge from the Homeric epics. It asks what happens when heroic leaders (Achilles, Agamemnon, Hector, Odysseus) ignore the needs of their people and end up failing them, despite their duty of care (a scenario expressed by recurring formulas in which leaders, as ‘shepherds of the people’, repeatedly and catastrophically ‘destroy the people’). The paper moreover asks whether ancient audiences in specific settings, most importantly the ancient Athenian festival of the Panathenaea, identified with epic leaders or their people.” Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Haubold, Johannes Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2021-09-24 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource A signed permission form has been received stating: "I hereby grant St. John's College permission to: Make an audiovisual recording of my lecture, and retain copies for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make an audiovisual recording of my lecture available online. Make a typescript copy of my lecture available for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make a typescript of my lecture available online." Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource mp4 Subject The topic of the resource Leadership in literature Homer--Characters--Odysseus. Epic poetry, Greek -- History and criticism. Panathenaia Homer--Characters--Achilles Homer--Characters--Agamemnon Homer--Characters--Hector Homer--Iliad Homer--Odyssey Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Haubold_Johannes_2021-09-24acccess Friday night lecture https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/4c6bdbe592b16f7f2044e7aec55a08a7.mp4 35a7c0e45bb838a453f453b4f91a890a Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College. During the Fall and Spring semesters, lectures are given on Friday nights. Items include audio and video recordings and typescripts.<br /><br />For more information, and a schedule of upcoming lectures, please visit the <strong><a href="http://www.sjc.edu/programs-and-events/annapolis/formal-lecture-series/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">St. John's College website</a></strong>.  <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Formal Lecture Series" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=5&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection.<br /><br />A growing number of lecture recordings are also available on the St. John's College (Annapolis) Lectures podcast. Visit <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/st-johns-college-annapolis-lectures/id1695157772">Apple Podcasts</a> or <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6GDsIRqC8SWZ28AY72BsYM?si=f2ecfa9e247a456f" title="Spotify">Spotify</a> to listen and subscribe. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context formallectureseriesannapolis Moving Image A series of visual representations imparting an impression of motion when shown in succession. Examples include animations, movies, television programs, videos, zoetropes, or visual output from a simulation. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data mp4 Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 00:50:01 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Female Drama Description An account of the resource Video recording of a lecture delivered on November 5, 2021, by Charlotte Thomas as part of the Formal Lecture Series. Dr. Thomas is Professor of Philosophy from Mercer University in Atlanta and Co-Director of the McDonald Center for America’s Founding Principles. She was named the Executive Director of Association for Core Texts and Courses in 2020. Dr. Thomas describes her lecture: "At the beginning of Book V of the Republic, Adeimantus and Polemarchus interrupt Socrates to say that he has neglected to explain something he had earlier said in passing about the role of women and children in the city in speech. Socrates admits that although the 'male drama' is complete, that he has indeed neglected these matters in the hope that he could avoid them entirely in their conversation. But with fear and trembling, prostrating himself to Adresteia and asking forgiveness for the hubris he fears he is about to display, he agrees to present the 'female drama.' Thus begins the notoriously difficult and controversial middle part of the Republic. One of the things that makes the middle books so difficult is that Socrates leans precipitously into constructing political structures which until this point of the dialogue he has been careful to remind his interlocutors were meant to function as paradigms to help them understand individual justice. But, although Socrates is quieter and more subtle about the teachings of the female drama for moral psychology, he is not silent. In this paper I will attempt to illuminate some of the hints we are given about the implications of the middle books of the Republic (especially Book V) for its teachings on the soul and investigate their place in the Republic as a whole." Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Thomas, Charlotte C. S. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2021-11-05 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource A signed permission form has been received stating: "I hereby grant St. John's College permission to: Make an audiovisual recording of my lecture, and retain copies for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make an audiovisual recording of my lecture available online. Make a typescript copy of my lecture available for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make a typescript of my lecture available online." Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource mp4 Subject The topic of the resource Plato. Republic. Book 5. Justice (Philosophy) Sex differences in education Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Harrell, Daniel Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Thomas_Charlotte_2021-11-05 Relation A related resource <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7591">Typescript</a> Friday night lecture https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/499d77fed3c616f2dab52c7806ee2e61.mp4 add3744da74637264f675b79046187ac Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College. During the Fall and Spring semesters, lectures are given on Friday nights. Items include audio and video recordings and typescripts.<br /><br />For more information, and a schedule of upcoming lectures, please visit the <strong><a href="http://www.sjc.edu/programs-and-events/annapolis/formal-lecture-series/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">St. John's College website</a></strong>.  <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Formal Lecture Series" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=5&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection.<br /><br />A growing number of lecture recordings are also available on the St. John's College (Annapolis) Lectures podcast. Visit <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/st-johns-college-annapolis-lectures/id1695157772">Apple Podcasts</a> or <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6GDsIRqC8SWZ28AY72BsYM?si=f2ecfa9e247a456f" title="Spotify">Spotify</a> to listen and subscribe. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context formallectureseriesannapolis Moving Image A series of visual representations imparting an impression of motion when shown in succession. Examples include animations, movies, television programs, videos, zoetropes, or visual output from a simulation. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data mp4 Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 01:01:15 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource <span>W.E.B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk, and the Democratic Catastrophe of the Color Line</span> Description An account of the resource Video recording of a lecture delivered by Jared Loggins on April 16, 2021 as part of the Formal Lecture Series. Mr. Loggins is an Assistant Professor of Black Studies and Political Science at Amherst University. His research and teaching interests are in black political thought, religious studies, and modern and contemporary democratic theory. He is about to publish his first book, which he co-authored, that “explores a critical theory of racial capitalism in the work of Martin Luther King Jr.” Mr. Loggins describes his lecture: "When W.E.B. Du Bois wrote, at the dawn of the twentieth century, the now famous formulation in The Souls of Black Folk that 'the problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line,' he was issuing something of a prophecy. Du Bois foresaw catastrophe in a failure to regard the flourishing of African-Americans in the United States as of central concern in the American polity. Souls imagined racial domination as a shared 'democratic' catastrophe, and one that can be understood as taking on world significance in his later work. In seeing the catastrophe of racial domination as shared, Souls established Du Bois as a towering political theorist on the question of what freedom demands on both sides of the color line." Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Loggins, Jared A., 1992- Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2021-04-16 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource A signed permission form has been received stating: "I hereby grant St. John's College permission to: Make an audiovisual recording of my lecture, and retain copies for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make an audiovisual recording of my lecture available online. Make a typescript copy of my lecture available for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make a typescript of my lecture available online." Type The nature or genre of the resource moving image Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource mp4 Subject The topic of the resource Du Bois, W. E. B. (William Edward Burghardt), 1868-1963. Souls of black folk African Americans--Social conditions United States--Race relations Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Macfarland, Joseph C. Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Loggins_Jared_2021-04-16 Friday night lecture https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/859fc44a9287028c87b3114dba083ad4.mp4 1489873f26bd6c4824e2ca7aeeabcda8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College. During the Fall and Spring semesters, lectures are given on Friday nights. Items include audio and video recordings and typescripts.<br /><br />For more information, and a schedule of upcoming lectures, please visit the <strong><a href="http://www.sjc.edu/programs-and-events/annapolis/formal-lecture-series/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">St. John's College website</a></strong>.  <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Formal Lecture Series" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=5&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection.<br /><br />A growing number of lecture recordings are also available on the St. John's College (Annapolis) Lectures podcast. Visit <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/st-johns-college-annapolis-lectures/id1695157772">Apple Podcasts</a> or <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6GDsIRqC8SWZ28AY72BsYM?si=f2ecfa9e247a456f" title="Spotify">Spotify</a> to listen and subscribe. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context formallectureseriesannapolis Moving Image A series of visual representations imparting an impression of motion when shown in succession. Examples include animations, movies, television programs, videos, zoetropes, or visual output from a simulation. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data mp4 Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 00:45:12 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource On the Originals of Fictive Mental Images Description An account of the resource Video recording of a lecture delivered by Annapolis tutor Eva Brann on September 3, 2021 as part of the Formal Lecture Series. Ms. Brann describes her lecture: "Most people have 'mental images,' pictures and voices that don't occur through the eyes and ears but behind them. Most of these are memory images whose originals are things seen or heard in the outside world. Some, however, are inner events, imaginary images that are not copies of reality but our own inventions, for example, dreams. We call these 'images' as well. So what are they images of? What are the originals of fictive mental images? And derivatively, what are the originals of artful fictions such as epics, novels, and paintings? Of whom is Homer's Achilles the truthful portrait?" Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Brann, Eva T. H. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2021-09-03 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource A signed permission form has been received stating: "I hereby grant St. John's College permission to: Make an audiovisual recording of my lecture, and retain copies for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make an audiovisual recording of my lecture available online. Make a typescript copy of my lecture available for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make a typescript of my lecture available online." Type The nature or genre of the resource moving image Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource mp4 Subject The topic of the resource Imagination Joyce, James, 1882-1941. Ulysses Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Macfarland, Joseph C. Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Brann_Eva_2021-09-03 Friday night lecture