13 20 5655 https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/449d723e466cc25a7b79ca2c068c950c.pdf 702044109db8c6989cce2a8521bd2918 PDF Text Text ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE CHARTER AND POLITY OF THE COLLEGE ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND SANTA FE, NEW MEXICO May, 1976 Founded as King William's School, 1696, Chartered as St. John's College, 1784 �History I 7 I I I ' J St. john's College was founded in 1696 as King William's School in accordance with a Petitionary Act for free-schools of the General Assembly of the Colony of Maryland. Following the Revolutionary War, the General Assembly of the new State of Maryland granted a Charter to St. John's College pursuant to and as a part of Chapter 37 of the Laws of Maryland of 1784. This Charter was subsequently amended by the General Assembly through Resolution No. 41 of 1832. The Visitors and Governors of St. John's College in 1950 revised the Charter to eliminate extraneous and obsolete matter and to make certain other amendments consistent with present requirements and conditions. It was the opinion of the Attorney General of Maryland that the original Charter of the College was subject to the general Corporation Laws of Maryland and might accordingly be amended by the Visitors and Governors, pursuant to these laws, without legislative action by the General Assembly. Subsequent amendments were made in 1961, in 1963, in 1965, in 1970, and in 1975. When the decision was reached to establish a second St. john's College in Santa Fe, New Mexico, amendments were made to the Charter to authorize branches or extensions of the College. The Charter was then filed with the Corporations Commission of the State of New Mexico as a foreign corporation. The College was thus empowered to grant degrees in New Mexico under the provisions of its Maryland Charter. A Polity for the College was first suggested at a faculty meeting in 1943 by the Dean. A faculty committee was elected and drafted a Polity which was then promulgated by the President. In April 1949 the Faculty elected a committee to revise the Polity. The resulting document was approved by the Faculty on April 9, 1950, and was adopted by the Board of Visitors and Governors on July 8, 1950. Subsequent quinquennial reviews were made by elected faculty committees, and desired amendments were recommended by the Faculty to the Board of Visitors and Governors. The Polity was thus amended at regular annual meetings of the Board held in Annapolis on May 14, 1955, May 21, 1960, May 15, 1965, June 6, 1970, and April 19, 1975. Other amendments were adopted by the Board at regular meetings in Annapolis on February 22 and December 9, 1961, February 23, 1963, October 3, 1970, and October 25, 1975; also at regular meetings in Santa Fe on September 28, 1963, February 18, 1972, and January 24, 1976. 1 - �IV. That the governing body or board of said College shall consist of not more than forty-nine nor less than thirteen Visitors and Governors, to be chosen and to hold office in such manner as the said Visitors and Governors may determine and prescribe by their fundamental ordinances; provided, however, that the Governors of the States of Maryland and New Mexico shall act ex officio as two of the total number of Visitors and Governors of said college during their respective terms in said offices; and that the said Visitors and Governors and their successors duly chosen shall be and are hereby declared to be one community, corporation and body politic to have contmuance forever by the name of Charter of St. John's College WHEREAS, institutions for the liberal education of youth in the principles of virtue , knowledge and useful literature are of the highest benefit to society, in order to train up and perpetuate a succession of able and honest men for discharging the various offices and duties of life, both civil and religious, with usefulness and reputation , and such institutions of learning have accordingly been promoted and encouraged by the wisest and best regulated States; And whereas, it appears to this General Assembly that many public spirited individuals, from an earnest desire to promote the founding a college or seminary of learning on the Western Shore of this State have subscribed and procured subscriptions to a considerable amount, and there is reason to believe that very large additions will be obtained to the same throughout the different counties of the said Shore , if they were made capable in law to receive and apply the same towards founding and carrying on a college or general seminary of learning with such salutary plan and with such legislative assistance and direction as the General Assembly might think fit, and this General Assembly, highly approving those generous exertions of individuals, are desirous to embrace the present favorable occasion of peace and prosperity for making lasting provision for the encouragement and advancement of all useful knowledge and literature through every part of this State; ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE and by the same name they shall have perpetual succession. VII. That if the City of Annapolis should be fixed upon as a proper place for establishing the said mtended college, this General Assembly give and grant, and upon that condition do hereby give and grant to the Visitors and Governors of the said College by the name of ''The Visitors and Governors of Saint John's College in the State of Maryland," and their successors all that four acres within the City of Annapolis purchased for· the use by the public and conveyed on the 2nd day of October, 1744, by Stephen Bordley, Esq . to Thos. Bladen, Esq., then Governor, to have and to hold the said four acres of land with the appurtenances to the said Visitors and governors and their successors for the only use, benefit and behoof of the said college and seminary of universal learning forever. BE IT ENACTED : II. That a college or general seminary of learning by the name of "St. John's College" be established on the said Western Shore upon the following fundamental and inviolable principles ; namely, first, the said college shall be founded and maintained forever upon a most liberal plan for the benefit of youth of every religious denomination , who shall be freely admitted to equal privileges and advantages of education and to all the literary honors of the college, according to their merit without requiring or enforcing any religious or civil test, or urging their attendance upon any particular religious worship or service other than what they have been educated in or have the consent and approbation of their parents or guardians to attend; nor shall any preference be given in the choice of a Principal, Vice-Principal or other Professor, Master or Tutor in said college on account of his particular religious profession, having regard solely to his moral character and literary abilities and other necessary qualifications to fill the place for which he shall be chosen. 2 - , I VIII. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors by the same name shall be able and capable in law to purchase, have and enjoy to them and their successors in fee, or for any other less estate or estates, any lands, tenements , rents, annuities, pensions or other hereditaments by the gift, grant, bargam, sale, alienation, enfoeffment, release, confirmation, or devise of any person or persons, bodies politic or corporate capable to make the same, and such lands, tenements , rents, annuities, pensions or other hereditaments or any less estates, rights or interests of or in the same at their pleasure to grant, alien, sell_ and transfer in such manner and form as they shall think meet and convement for the furtherance of the said college; And also that they ma_y take and receive any sum or sums of money, and any kind, manner or pomon of goods and chattels that shall be given, sold or bequeathed to them by any person or persons, bodies politic or corporate capable to make a gift, sale or bequest thereof and employ the same toward erecting, setting up and maintaining the said col.lege in such manner as they shall Judge most necessary and convenient for the instruction, improvement - 3 - �I I I and education of youth in the vernacular and learned languages, and generally in any kind of literature, ans and sciences, which they shall think proper to be taught for training up good , useful and accomplished men for the service of their country , in church and state . professors such powers and authorities as they may think best for the standing government of the said seminary and of the execuuon of the ordmances and rules of the same; provided always that they be not repugnant to the form of government of any law of this State. IX. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors by the name aforesaid shall be able in law to sue and be sued, plead and be impleadable in any court or courts, before any judge, judges, or justices within this State and elsewhere in all and all manner of suits, complaints, pleas, causes, matters and demands of whatsoever kind, nature or form they be and all and every other matter and thing therein to do in as full and effectual a manner as any other person or persons, bodies politic or corporate within this State or any of the United States of America in like cases may or can do. XV. And for animating and encouraging the students of said college to a laudable diligence, industry and progress in useful literature and science, be it enacted that the said Visitors and Governors and their successors shall by a written mandate under their privy seal and the hand of someone of the Visitors and Governors to be chosen annually as their President, according to the ordinance to be made for that purpose, have full power and authoriry to direct the principal, vice-principal and professors to hold public commencements either on stated annual days, or occas10nally as the future ordmances of the said seminary may direct and at such commencements to admit any of the students in the said college or any other persons meriting the same (whose names shall be severally inserted in the same mandate) to any degree or degrees in any of the faculties, arts and sciences and liberal professions .to which persons are usually admitted in other colleges or universities in Amenc_a or Europe; And it is hereby enacted that the pnncipal, or in the case of his death or absence, the vice-principal, and in case of the death or absence of both, the senior professor who may be present, shall make out and sign with his name diplomas or certificates of the admission to such degree or degrees, which shall be sealed with the public or greater seal of the said corporatton or college and delivered to the graduates as honorable and perpetual testimonials of such admission; which diplomas, if thought necessary for doing greater honor to such graduates, shall also be signed with the names of the different professors or as many of them as can conveniently sign the same; provided always that no student or students within the said college shall ever be admitted to any such degree or degrees, or have their name mserted in any mandate for a degree, until such student or students have been first duly examined, and thought worthy of the same. X. That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors shall have full power and authoriry to have, make and use one common and public seal and likewise one privy seal with such devices and inscriptions as they shall_ think proper, and to ascertain, fix and regulate the uses of both seals, by their own laws and the same seals or either of them to change, break, alter and renew at their pleasure. Ir II I I XI . That the said Visitors and Governors and their successors from time to time and at all times hereafter, forever, shall have full power and authority to constitute and appoint in such manner as they shall think best and most convenient, a principal, a vice-principal of th_esaid college and professors with proper tutors and assistants for instructing the students and scholars of the said seminary in all the liberal arts and sciences, and in the ancient and modern tongues and languages; and the said principal, vice-principal and professors so constituted and appointed from time to time shall be known and distinguished forever as one learned body or faculry by the name of ''The Principal, Vice-Principal and Professors of St. John's College"; and by that name shall be capable of exercising such powers and authorities as the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors shall by their ordinances think necessary to delegate to them for the instruction, discipline and government of the said seminary and of all the students, scholars, ministers and servants belonging to the same. XIV. That a majority of the said Visitors and Governors for the time being and duly assembled at any meeting upon due notice given to the whole body of Visitors and Governors shall have full power and authority to make fundamental ordinances for the government of the said college and the instruction of youth as aforesaid, and by these ordinances to appoint such a number of their own body not less than seven, as they may think proper for transacting all general and necessary business of the said seminary and making temporary rules for the government of the same; and also by the said fundamental ordinances to delegate to the principal, vice-principal and - 4 - ' XVI. That the ordinances which shall be from time to time made by the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors with an account of their other proceedings and of the manag_ement of theestate and moneys committed to their trust, shall when required be laid before the General Assembly for their inspection and examination,but in case at 3:°Y time hereafter through oversight, or otherwise through misapprehension and mistaken constructions of the powers, liberties and franchises m this Charter or Act of Incorporation granted, or intended to be granted, any ordinance should be made by the said corporation of Visitors and Governors or any matters done and transacted by the corporation contrary to the tenor hereof, it is enacted that although such ordinances, acts and doings shall in themselves be null and void, yet they shall not, however, in any courts of law, or by the General Assembly, be deemed, taken, interpreted or adjudged into - 5 - �an avoidance or forfeiture of this Charter and Act of Incorporation, but the same shall be and remain unhun , inviolate and entire unto the said corporation of Visitors and Governors in perpetual succession; and all their acts conformable to the powers , true intent and meaning hereof shall be and remain in full force and validity, the nullity and avoidance of such illegal acts to the contrary in any wise notwithstanding. XVII. That this Charter and Act of Incorporation and every pan thereof shall be good and available in all things in the law according to the true intent and meaning thereof, and shall be construed, reputed and adjudged in all cases most favorably on the behalf and for the best benefit and behoof of the said Visitors and Governors and their successors , so as most effectually to answer the valuable end of this Act of Incorporation towards the general advancement and promotion of useful knowledge, science and virtue. Polity of St. John's College PREAMBLE XVIII. That the College may establish and operate one or more branches in one or more states of the United States. Education is the making of men out of children by bringing them into the world of inherited customs, intellectual traditions, and spiritual ties. Institutions of learning are set up for this purpose. Beyond this they should also seek to develop the moral and intellectual powers of men to enable them to fulfill best their freely chosen tasks and thus to take their own responsible part in shaping the future. St. John's College is a community of learning committed to holding these ends constantly in sight and to seeking the best means of attaining them. C St.John's College strives to illuminate the common heritage of mankind in a persisting study of the great documents in which that heritage can be found. It is concerned with the unity of knowledge, an understanding of the great issues faced by men, and the moral foundations on which the conduct of men's lives can be based. To provide proper conditions for the pursuit of these ends, we, the Board of Visitors and Governors, after consultation with the Faculty, do ordain and establish the polity for St. John's College. - 7 - - 6 - �'r Anicle I THE COLLEGE II (1) St.John's College is by its Chaner a legal entity, carrying on its functions in Annapolis, Maryland, and in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Under the Charter of the College, all power, authority, and responsibility penaining to the College are vested in the Visitors and Governors. (2) The College shall be understood to consist of the following: (a) the Board of Visitors and Governors; (b) the Faculty; (c) the Scholars-in-Residence; (d) the Anists-in-Residence; (e) the Students; (f) the Faculty of the Graduate Institute; (g) the Alumni; and (h) the Staff. (3) Under the Chaner, "the said Visitors and Governors, and their successors, from time to time, and at all times hereinafter, forever, shall have full power and authority to constitute and appoint, in such manner as they shall think best and most convenient, a principal and vice-principal of the said College, and professors, with proper tutors and assistants, for instructing the students and scholars of the said seminary in all the liberal arts and sciences, and in the ancient and modern tongues and languages; and the said principal, vice-principal, and professors, so constituted and appointed from time to time shall be known and distinguished forever as one learned body or faculty, by the name of 'The Principal, Vice-Principal, and Professors of St. John's College'; and by that name shall be capable of exercising such powers and authorities as the Visitors and Governors of the said college and their successors shall by their ordinances think necessary to delegate to them for the instruction, discipline, and government of the said seminary and of all the students, scholars, ministers and servants belonging to the same." (a) The "principal" shall bear the title President. (b) The "vice-principal" shall be the Dean who 1s servmg as the Chairman of the Instruction Committee. (c) There shall be a Dean of St. John's College in Annapolis and a Dean of St. John 's College in Santa Fe. (d) The ''professors, tutors and assistants'' shall bear the title Tutor or Tutor Emeritus. Tutors who have completed their tenure appointments and are no longer teaching shall be Tutors Emeriti. (e) There shall be a Vice-President of St. John's College in Annapolis and a Vice-President of St. John's College in Santa Fe. (f) There shall be Associates of St. John's College, who shall be on either campus, as the offices may be deemed necessary, the Treasurer, the Registrar, the Librarian, the Assistant Librarian, the Director of Athletics, the Director of Student Activities, the Director of Admissions, the Director of - 8 - Alumni Activities, the College Archivist and Alumni Secretary, the Director of Financial Aid, and the Director of Placement. (g) The '' one learned body or faculty,'' composed of the President, the Deans, the other Tutors, the Tutors Emeriti, the Vice-Presidents, and the Associates, shall bear the title The Faculty of St. John's College. (h) There may be on either campus Scholars-in-Residenc~ and Anistsin-Residence. (i) All who have formally matriculated, are at the present enrolled, and are in good standing shall be called Students of St. John's College. (j) Tutors of the Graduate Institute, the Director, the Assistant Director, and the Registrar of the Graduate Institute shall be called the Faculty of the Graduate Institute . (k) All who have formally matriculated on either campus, who are not at present enrolled, and whose class has graduated, whether graduates or non-graduates, whether in undergraduate or post-graduate programs, shall be called Alumni of St. John's College. (1) The Staff shall consist of all persons who are appointed by the Vice-Presidents to the performance of duties necessary to the proper functioning of the College. The Staff may, as appropriate to either campus, consist of two parts, the Administrative Staff and the Buildings and Grounds Staff. (m) In all appointments and in student admissions there shall be no discrimination with respect to sex, race, color, creed, and national or ethnic ongm. (n) Normal retirement of any person employed by the College shall take place on June 30th following the date on which such person shall have attained the age of 65 years. For persons other than Tutors, any extension of employment beyond normal retirement age shall be authorized annually at the discretion of the President and reponed by him to the Board of Visitors and Governors; except that in the case of the President and of those Associates who are appointed by the Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President, any extension shall be at the discretion, expressed by resolution annually, of the Board of Visitors and Governors. Anicle II VISITORS AND GOVERNORS (1) Qualifications for Membership. Persons shall be eligible for membership on the Board of Visitors and Governors who are concerned for the - 9 - �maintenance, progress, and vitality of St. John's College's educational program and who are willing and able to discharge the responsibilities of trusteeship with devotion and energy. (2) Members. The Board of Visitors and Governors shall consist of not more than fony-nine members, comprising the President, the Deans, the Vice-Presidents, the Governors of Maryland and New Mexico, ex officio, and fony-two members, of whom thiny-six shall be elected by the entire Board and six shall be elected by the Alumni of the College, in the manner and for the terms hereinafter provided. In recognition of meritorious service to the College, honorary members may be elected at the discretion of the Board. (3) Elections by the Board. At each annual meeting, the Board shall elect a class of nine members for a term of three years, to succeed those members whose term expires at the conclusion of said meeting. The procedure for nomination and election shall be as follows: There shall be a standing Nominating Committee of three members of the Board appointed by the Chairman. The Chairman and the President shall sit with the committee, ex officio, when nominations to Board membership are being considered. The Nominating Committee shall recommend to each member of the Board in writing, not later than thirty days prior to the annual meeting at which the election is to be held, at least one candidate for each of the places to be filled by such election. Additional nominations may be made in writing, addressed to the Chairman, signed by at least five members of the Board, prior to the date above provided for the report of the Nominating Committee, and any such additional nominations shall be reported to the Board by the Committee at the time of its report. Voting on such nominations at such annual meetings shall be by ballot, each member present to vote for nine of the said nominees. In case there are more than nine nominees, and the balloting results in a tie for one or more places, the Board shall determine the procedure to resolve the tie. No nominee shall be deemed elected who has not received the affirmative votes of at least a majoriry of the members present at the meeting. In the event that for any reason there should be less than nine members in any class prior to the end of the term for such class, the vacancy may be filled pursuant to the procedure provided above for regular elections, except that the election may take place at any regular meeting. A member elected to fill any such vacancy shall hold office for the remainder of the term of the class in which such vacancy occurred. (4) Elections by the Alumni. Each year in the spring, two alumni shall be elected to membership for a term of three years, in such manner that there shall be six members of the Board elected by the Alumni, consisting of three classes of two members each. Out-going alumni members shall continue to serve until their successors are elected. - 10 - . The Director of Alumni Activities shall request the Board of the Alumni Association to nominate_ at least one candidate for each vacancy. Additional candidates may be nominated by petition of any thirty alumni. All Alumni (which shall include all Alumni and honorary members of the Alumni Association) shall be eligible to vote for the Alumni members of the Board. Balloting will be conducted by mail by the Director of Alumni Activities. In the event that for any reason there should be less than two Alumni members in any class prior to the end of the term of such class, the vacancy shall be filled by interim election, conducted in the same manner. (5) Faculty Representation at Board Meetings. Three Tutors shall be elected by the Faculty on each campus for a term of three years, one to be elected at the last meeting in each academic year, to attend all regular meetings on the campus to which they belong, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (6) Student Representation at Board Meetings. Two students shall attend all regular meetings on the Board on the campus to which they belong, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (7) Alumni Association Representation at Board Meetings. The President of the Alumni Association shall attend Board meetings, with voice in deliberation, but without vote. (8) _Reelection. A member of the Board elected by the Board or by the Alumm may be elected for not more than two consecutive terms, but may, after a second consecutive term, be reelected to membership beginning with the annual meeting in the year following the expiration of his second term. (9) Meetings of the Board. (a) Regular meetings of the Board shall be held quanerly in either Annapolis or Santa Fe in the month of September, December, February, and May of each year, or in such other months as the Board may determine· the meeting in May shall be called the annual meeting. The time and place of regular meetings shall be determined by the Chairman, in consultation with the President, and notice of regular meetings shall be given not less than fifteen days prior to such meetings. (b) Special meetings of the Board may be called by the President, the chairman, the Executive Committee, or any five members of the Board, not less than seven days after the dispatch of written or telegraphic notice of the time, place, and purposes of the meeting. Such notice may be dispensed with if waived in writing by all members of the Board either before or after the meeting. (c) Any business may be conducted at a regular meeting without specific notice of such business (except that which is required by law or as provided herein as to elections and amendments), but no business shall be 11 �conducted at any special meeting unless notice of such business has been given, or has been waived as above provided. (d) Twelve members of the Board present at a meeting shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. (10) Officers of the Board. At each annual meeting the Board shall elect a Chairman, two Vice-Chairmen, and a Secretary, to hold office until the next annual meeting or until their successors are elected . Vacancies in any such offices may be filled at any regular meeting, or any special meeting called for that purpose. Such officers shall perform the customary duties of such offices, and such other duties as the Board may from time to time direct. (11) Committees of the Board. (a) Executive Committee. The Chairman, the Vice-Chairman, the Secretary, the President, the Deans, and four other members chosen annually by the Board at the annual meeting shall comprise the Executive Committee of the Board. In intervals between meetings of the Board, the Executive Committee may act for the Board, except in those matters expressly delegated to some other committee, person, or persons. Five members of the Executive Committee present at a meeting shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. (b) Visiting Committee. There shall be a Visiting Committee of not more than ten persons appointed by the Chairman. There shall be an eastern and a western Co-Chairman of the Visiting Committee, and the Committee's membership shall include an equal number of members from the two sections of the country. Each half of the Visiting Committee shall make at least one visit to the campus in its area each year to repon to the Board on how well the aims of the College are being realized. Each half of the visiting Committee shall meet at least once annually with the Instruction Committee on the campus in its area to discuss the statement of educational policy and program of the Chairman of the Instruction Committee and to acquaint themselves with other educational matters. (c) Finance Committee. There shall be a Finance Committee consisting of the Chairman, the President, the Vice-Presidents, and the Treasurers of the College ex officio, and four members appointed by the Chairman to serve at the pleasure of the Board or until their successors have been duly appointed. The members of the Committee shall select one of their members to be the Chairman of the Committee. In carrying out its functions the Committee may be divided into three working subcommittees, one on investments, one on budget and finance for the Annapolis campus, and one on budget and finance for the Santa Fe campus. The Finance Committee shall have the following powers and duties: - 12 - ,, (i) The Finance Committee shall have full power to direct the investment and reinvestment of all funds of the College, including endowment and restricted funds, and the proper officers of the Board and the College are authorized to carry out all written directions, signed by the Chairman of the Committee, with respect to such investments and reinvestments . The Committee shall repon at each regular meeting any action taken hereunder since the previous meeting. (ii) The Finance Committee shall review the proposed annual budgets of the College prior to their presentation for approval by the Board and shall make recommendations to the Board with respect to the budgets at the meeting at which they are presented. (iii) The Finance Committee shall study, and periodically advise the Board with respect to, the financial business policies and practices of the College, and shall make such special studies and reports as the Board may from time to time request. (d) Polity Review Committee. There shall be a Poliry Review Committee of not more than five members appointed by the Chairman every fifth year to serve for one year. The Committee shall receive the repon of . the Faculry Committee and after appropriate study shall make recommendations to the Board for consideration at the annual meeting when the final review of the Polity is consummated. The respective chairmen of the Board and Faculty Review Committees shall make such arrangements as they deem appropnatc for joint consultation prior to and after the adoption of the repon by the Faculty. (e) Other Committees. The Chairman may appoint such other standing or special committees of the Board as he may deem desirable or which the Board may request. (f) Former members of the Board may be appointed by the Chairman to serve on Committees at his discretion. (12) Execution of Contracts, Transfer of Securities, etc. All major contracts of $5,000 or more, notes, deeds, leases, mongages, releases, bonds for security or indemnity, negotiable instruments, stock cenificates, transfers, and powers, and like papers and documents on behalf of the College or the Endowment Funds shall be executed by two persons, of whom one shall be the President, the Chairman, or the Vice-Chairman, and of whom the other shall be the Secretary of the Board, the Vice-President, or the Treasurer of the campus concerned. (13) Signing of Checks, Drafts, Etc. All checks, drafts, acceptances, and similar orders for the payment of money on behalf of the College may be signed by the same persons authorized to execute contracts, etc., pursuant to 13 �Section {12) hereof, but may also be signed by such persons, and in such manner, as the Board may from time to time direct by appropriate resolution. (7) The President shall appoint, or delegate the power to appoint, such committees as may be necessary for the carrying out of his duties and for which no provision is made under Article VIII. THE FACULTY Article IV THE FACULTY: THE CHAIRMAN OF THE INSTRUCTION COMMITTEE AND THE DEANS The Visitors and Governors by these ordinances hereby delegate to the Faculty of St. John 's College - the President, the Deans, the other Tutors, the Tutors Emeriti, the Vice-Presidents, and the Associates - "powers and authorities" for the "instruction, discipline, and government" of the College. {1) The Chairman of the Instruction Committee. {a) There is vested in the Chairman of the Instruction Committee responsibility and authority for the organization of the program of instruction in the liberal arts that is followed by the Tutors and the Students. (b) The Deans shall serve alternately, for a term of one year, as Chairman of the Instruction Committee. (c) The Chairman of the Instruction Committee shall, after consultation with the Instruction Committee on his campus, and after discussion with the Instruction Committee of the College, submit a Statement of Educational Policy and Program to the Faculty as a whole for discussion. The Statement shall be presented by the President as a report to the Board of Visitors and Governors. Article III THE FACULTY: THE PRESIDENT (1) There is vested in the President by the Visitors and Governors executive responsibility and authority for the instruction, discipline, and government of the College, and the President, in turn, may delegate his authority. (2) The President shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of a Committee composed of five members of the Board of Visitors and Governors, the Deans, and one Tutor from each campus selected from among themselves by the Tutors on that campus having tenure . This Committee shall consult with all appropriate persons on both campuses prior to making its final recommendation and shall arrange for the candidates to meet with the Instruction Committee on each campus . (2) The Deans. (3) The President shall concurrently be a Tutor, but the provisions of Article V need not apply. (4) The President and persons to whom he delegates his authority shall consult with the Deans, other appropriate persons, and appropriate faculty committees in matters of policy, initiation of programs, and setting of priorities affecting the general welfare of the College. (5) The President may appoint members of the Faculty to serve as administrative assistants, and he shall have power to relieve them of their administrative duties at any time. (6) The President shall appoint a member of the Faculty on each campus to serve as Marshal at convocation and commencement ceremonies. 14 - I ' (a) There is vested in the Deans on their respective campuses responsibility and authority for the supervision of the program of instruction and for the general welfare of the students and for whatever government of the students be necessary for the greatest possible attainment of aims of the program. Each Dean shall be the Chairman of the Instruction Committee on the campus where he serves. In carrying out their duties, the Deans shall consult regularly with the Instruction Committee and other appropriate Faculty committees. (b) The Deans shall be appointed for terms of five years from among the Tutors by the Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President after consultation with a special committee of six, three from each campus, selected from among themselves by the Tutors having tenure. (c) The Deans shall be Tutors with tenure, the provisions of Article V(3) notwithstanding. (d) To assist them in carrying out their duties, the Deans shall recommend one or more Tutors to be appointed by the President with the title of Assistant Dean. (e) Either Dean, with the approval of the Instruction Committee on 15 - �II the campus concerned, may recommend to the President that in the interest of instruction a Tutor be relieved of his duties in whole or in part at any time. When such action is taken, the Tutor's salary shall be continued for the remainder of the current academic year. (f) During the absence of the President from either campus, the Dean on that campus shall if necessary exercise the President's prerogative of final decision . (g) During the absence of either Dean from the campus a Tutor with tenure named by him shall act for the Dean. (h) The Dean on each campus shall appoint such committees as may be necessary for the carrying out of his duties and for which no other provision is made. I I AnicleV THE FACULTY: THE TUTORS (1) The primary responsibilities of the Tutors are to teach and to make themselves as competent as possible in all parts of the St. John's Program. (2) The Tutors in Annapolis and the Tutors in Santa Fe shall have authority to recommend to the Visitors and Governors candidates for degrees which the College is empowered to grant. 11 111 ', 'I (3) Appointment and Reappointment of Tutors. Tutors shall be appointed by the Visitors and Governors upon recommendation of the President in accordance with the recommendation of the Dean and the Instruction Committee on that campus where the Tutors so appointed shall teach. (a) Regular appointment of Tutors shall be upon the following terms: (i) New Tutors shall be appointed for one year. First and second reappointments shall also be for one year. Third and fourth reappointments, that are not tenure appointments, shall be for two years. Tenure appointments shall continue until June 30th after the Tutor's sixty-fifth birthday, subject to the provisions of Section 5 below. (ii) Before making recommendations to the President on tenure appointments the Dean on each campus shall consult with the Instruction Committee on that campus, after seeking the advice of the Tutors on that campus having tenure. (iii) A Tutor under the age of thiny at first appointment may upon the completion of three one-year and one two-year appointments be given a tenure appointment. If he is not given a tenure appointment, he may be reappointed for another two years, after which he must either be given a tenure appointment or not be reappointed as Tutor. \ - 16 - J I (iv) A Tutor of 30 to 45 years of age at first appointment shall upon the completion of three one-year and one two-year appointments either be given a tenure appointment or not be reappointed as Tutor. (v) A Tutor over 45 years of age at first appointment may upon the completion of three one-year appointments be given a tenure appointment. If he is not given a tenure appointment, he may be reappointed for two years, after which he must either be given a tenure appointment or not be reappointed as a Tutor. (b) For the purpose of temporary transfer between campuses, special full-time appointments of one or two years may be granted to a Tutor m additional to his regular appointments. The Tutor may ask that such an appointment be counted as a regular appointment for the purpose of (a) above. (c) In exceptional circumstances, notwithstanding the provisions of Section (3) (a) of this Anicle, a Tutor who has not been given a tenure appointment may be reappointed as Tutor annually provided that he serve concurrently as Assistant Dean. (d) Special one-year initial appointments and re-appointments may be given to Tutors who intend to teach on a pan-time basis only. Such a Tutor may apply for and receive a regular appointment. Special pan-time appointments may be counted on · a fractional basis toward eligibility for tenure. Notwithstanding, a Tutor shall not be considered for a tenure appointment without having served three regular one-year appointments. In establishing eligibility for sabbatical leave, special pan-time appointments shall be computed proponionately. (e) When Tutors are reappointed to non-tenure appointments, the President shall notify them of their appointment no later than March 1st of each year. In the event that a Tutor is not recommended for reappointment, he shall be so notified by December 15th. When Tutors are appointed to tenure appointments, the President shall notify them of their appointment before the beginning of the last year of their non-tenure appointment. In the event that a Tutor is not recommended for a tenure appointment, he shall be so notified prior to June 30 of the year preceding the beginning of the last year of his non-tenure appointment. (4) A tutor may apply to the Instruction Committee of the College not later than January 15 for a transfer of campus for the next academic year. Transfers shall require approval of both Deans after consultation with their Instruction Committee. (5) A Tutor may have his appointment terminated at any time by the Board of Visitors and Governors upon recommendation of the President for 17 �(i) Those who have served for the greater number of years since their first appointment as Tutor or since their last sabbatical leave whichever is more recent; (ii) Those whose service has been continuous throughout those years. (iii) Those who have seniority of appointment. When there is a conflict of precedence, the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned shall be consulted . (c) A Tutor eligible for sabbatical leave shall make application to the President before November 1st for leave to begin the following July 1st, and shall be informed of the action upon his application not later than January 1st. (8) The President, with the concurrence of the Dean after consultation with the Instruction Committee on the campus concerned, may grant leaves of absence to Tutors for a period of one year or less. At that time it shall be determined whether the leave shall be counted as service to the College with respect to eligibility for sabbatical leave and, if so, how. The decision with respect to a request for leave of absence shall be made in the light of the requirements both of the applicant Tutor and of the whole College. (a) Leaves of absence may be renewed upon request but not more than twice in succession except in extraordinary circumstances. (b) A request for a leave of absence shall be submitted to the President as early as possible in the year before the year in which the leave is to be taken, but not later than January 15th of that year. Requests for leaves of absence may be withdrawn at any time prior to April 1st of the year in which the request is submitted. Requests for leaves of absence for the second semester must be submitted no later than October 15th. (c) A Tutor applying for leave of absence to further his studies may also apply for a grant from the College. (d) Tutors on sabbatical leave or leave of absence remain members of the Faculty with the right of full panicipation in Faculty meetings and all other College exercises. Article VI one of the following reasons only: (1) failure or inability to perform his teaching duties in a satisfactory manner, or (ii) moral turpitude. The President shall make such recommendation only with the concurrence of the Dean and the Instruction Committee of the campus concerned. Prior to the termination of such appointment, the Tutor concerned shall have the right to be heard by the Instruction Committee and by the Visitors and Governors. ~6)(a) The College makes provision for members of the Faculty who have atta10ed age 65 through the program of the Teachers Insurance and Annuity of America and the Federal Old Age Benefits program. Association Participation in the former is required after the first three one-year appo10tments. (b) Tutors who have completed their tenure appointments may be recommended by the Dean, after consultation with the Instruction Committee, for as many as five successive one-year appointments with a full-time or reduced teaching responsibility as individually determined. (7) The sabbatical leave program is designed to provide Tutors with an I opporturuty for study, rest, and renewal of spirit. Sabbatical leaves shall normally be granted to four _or five Tutors at each campus each academic year, dependmg upon the financial capability of the College. It is understood that Tutors on such leave will not undenake full-time remunerative employment elsewhere and will return to the College. . (a) Eligibility for sabbatical leave shall be upon the following cond1t1ons: (i) A Tutor who holds a tenure appointment may apply for a full year_ of sabbatical leave at full sal3:tr, provided he has completed the equivalent of nine full _years of service to the College since his original appointment, or the equivalent of six full years of service since any previous sabbatical leave, and the sabbatical leave does not coincide with the last year of his tenure appointment. (ii) Such a Tutor may apply for an earlier sabbatical leave of a full year at panial salary, or a partial year at full salary. The fractional salary or fractional year shall be determmed by the number of years of teaching completed 10 relation to the prescnbed total for either an initial or a subsequent sabbatical leave, as the case may be. In no case shall a Tutor be paid more than_ his regular salary. Sabbatical leave for a fraction of a year may be granted dunng any but the last year of a Tutor's tenure appointment. (b) If in a year there are more applicants for sabbatical leave at any one campus than there are leaves to be granted at that campus, then those members shall have precedence who meet the following conditions in the order set forth: - 18 - THE VICE-PRESIDENTS I (1) There is delegated to the Vice-Presidents on their respective campuses responsibility and authority for the supervision of administrative affairs as hereinafter provided; for the supervision of financial affairs; for the appointment of members of the Staff; and for relations with the local community outside the College. • 19 • �(2) The Vice-Presidents shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President after consultation with the Dean and a committee constituted on each campus by resolution of the Faculty on that campus. (3) The Vice-Presidents may be appointed Tutors under the provisions of Article V (3) (d). (4) The Vice-Presidents, and persons to whom they delegate their authority, shall consult with the Dean, other appropriate persons, and appropriate faculty committees in the exercise of their responsibilities. (5) The Vice-Presidents shall make themselves as familiar as possible with the aims and methods of the program of instruction and to that end may sit with the Instruction Committee on their respective campuses. Article VII THE FACUL1Y: THE ASSOCIATES (1) Associates on each campus shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President in consultation with the Dean and Vice-President of that campus . (2) Associates may be appointed Tutors under the provisions of Article V (3) (d). (3) There shall be the following Associates, as deemed necessary on each campus, with the powers and responsibilities provided. (a) The Treasurers. The Treasurers shall have charge on their respective campuses, under the supervision of the Vice Presidents, of all funds and property , and shall have authority to carry out fiscal and property transactions, and to receive and disburse funds, subject to the provisions of this Polity and other directions and arrangements made pursuant thereto. (b) The Registrars. The Registrars shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses and shall prepare and supervise the registration of students, maintain current student records, assist in the preparation of instruction schedules, compile statistics about the students, record grades, issue and interpret transcripts, and perform archival functions. (c) The Librarians. The Librarians shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the operation of the Library. Appointments of professional members of the Library Staff shall be made upon the recommendation of the Librarian to the Dean on each campus. (d) The Director of Student Activities and the Director of Athletics. The Director of Student Activities and the Director of Athletics shall be - 20 responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for devising and directing programs of recreational activities. (e) The Directors of Admissions. The Directors of Admissions shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the annual enrollment of qualified Freshmen. (f) The Directors of Alumni Activities. The Directors of Alumni Activities shall be responsible to the Vice-Presidents on their respective campuses. Their primary duty is to enable the College and the Alumni Association to be of service to alumni. (g) The College Archivist and Alumni Secretary. The College Archivist and Alumni Secretary shall be responsible to the Vice-Presidents on their respective campuses for maintaining the archives of the College at that campus. (h) The Directors of Financial Aid. The Directors of Financial Aid shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for the administration of financial aid programs. (i) The Directors of Placement. The Directors of Placement shall be responsible to the Deans on their respective campuses for counselling students with respect to graduate and professional schools and careers. Article VIII THE FACUL1Y: FACUL1Y COMMITTEES (1) The Instruction Committee (a) The Instruction Committee shares with its Chairmen responsibility for the program of instruction of the College. It shall consist of twelve Tutors in addition to the Deans. The President shall sit with the Commmee ex officio. Six of the Tutors shall be elected from each campus of the College. The Instruction Committee shall meet annually . On each campus the members of the Instruction Committee and the Dean as Chairman constitute the Instruction Committee of the College on that campus. The President sits ex officio with the Instruction Committee on each campus. (b) Each of the members of the Instruction Committee shall serve for a term of three years and the terms shall be arranged in suth a way that each year the terms of twomembers at each camp:i,is shall expire. Terms begin and end the day following commencement exercises. Annually, and separately_ at each campus, the President with the Dean on his _campus, after consultmg with the Instruction Committee and seeking the advice of the other Tutors on that campus, shall at the last regular Faculty meeting on that campus - 21 - �- nominate four Tutors of whom two shall be elected by the Tutors to membership on the Instruction Committee. The Faculty shall be informed of the names of the nominees prior to the meeting at which the election occurs. No member of the Instruction Committee shall serve more than two terms in succession. (c) If for any reason a member of the Instruction Committee is unable to serve for a pan of his term, another Tutor shall be chosen to take his place for that pan of the term. For this purpose the President and the Dean, in consultation with the Instruction Committee on the campus where the vacancy occurs, shall nominate two Tutors of whom the Tutors shall elect one in a regular Faculty meeting. (d) If the Instruction Committee resigns with the Deans on a matter of confidence and the resignations are accepted, the President, in consultation with the new Deans and after seeking the advice of the other Tutors, shall nominate nine Tutors for the six vacancies on each campus in such manner that two out of each three nominees shall be elected by the Tutors for each of the three classes to fill the unexpired terms. I I (2) The Salary Committee. (a) There shall be a Faculty Salary Committee of six members, three to be elected by the Faculty on each campus, whose chairmanship shall annually alternate between campuses. The Committee shall advise with the President concerning Faculty salaries and related matters; it shall make annual reviews of the College's statement of salaries and other compensation of Tutors and repon to the Faculty and the President recommendations consequent upon the review. (b) Members of the Committee shall be elected annually on each campus for terms of three years in such manner that the term of one member on each campus terminates each year. The Salary Committee on each campus shall provide the Faculty on that campus with two nominations for each vacancy on the Committee on that campus. Additional nominations may be made at the Faculty meeting when election shall be made. (3) The Library Committees. The President, in consultation with the Librarian and the Dean, shall appoint three Tutors on each campus to serve as a Library Committee. The President, the Dean, and the Librarian shall themselves be ex officio members of the Committee, and the Librarian shall serve as Chairman. It shall be the duty of the Library Committees to assist the Librarians in making the Libraries serve the ends of the College and its program; it shall be their duty to advise the Librarians in regard to Library policy and acquisitions. The Managers of the Bookstores may be invited to sit with the Committees. - 22 - (4) The Campus Development Committees. The Faculty on each campus shall elect five of its members as a Campus Development Committee. Two members shall be elected to the Committee annually at the first regular meeting of the academic session except in every third year, when one member shall be chosen. The President shall sit ex officio with both Committees. The Dean, the Vice President, one of the Assistant Deans, and the Treasurer on each campus shall sit ex officio with the Committee on that campus. It shall be the duty of the respective committees to advise the President on the construction of new buildings, the renovation of old buildings, landscaping of grounds, and all matters relating to the maintenance and development of the campus. (5) The Prize Committees. Every three years the President shall appoint five Tutors on each campus to supervise the awarding of prizes on the respective campuses. The Committees shall have full authority to decide what prizes shall be awarded and to name the recipients of the prizes. (6) The Committee for the Graduate Institute. There shall be a Committee for the Graduate Institute as specified in Article XII. (7) Other Committees. The Faculty on each campus shall have authority to elect, or to request the President to appoint, additional committees that may from time to time become necessary. Article IX THE FACULTY: FACULTY PROCEDURE (1) Procedure for Instructional Proposals. (a) (i) Any major proposal concerning matters of instruction affecting the College as a whole shall originate with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on either campus, and the decision as to what proposals are major shall be within the discretion of the said Dean and Instruction Committee who shall then consult with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the other campus. In normal circumstances major proposals concerning instruction shall be formulated at the annual meeting of the Instruction Committee of the College. Such a proposal shall then be presented to the whole Faculty by the Chairman of the Instruction Committee, either in his own person or through the other Dean as his representative. If, after full discussion of any proposal so presented, there be no objection on the part of any Tutor, the measure stands approved and becomes effective as of the date specified therefor. If, after full discussion, a Tutor objects to the proposal and holds to his objection, the proposal shall be submitted to vote of the Tutors at special - 23 - �Faculty meetings called by the President within a fonnight. In submitting the proposal to vote the Chairman of the Instruction Committee and the Dean on the other campus shall state whether it be a matter of confidence. The vote may then be taken and tallied by the President in such fashion that the Tutors shall have recorded their decision acting as a whole. If the proposal be one that the Chairman of the Instruction Committee and the other Dean have declared a matter of confidence and if it be defeated by majority vote, the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall immediately resign. If it be passed by majority vote, it shall become effective as of the date specified therefor. For the confidence procedure a quorum shall consist of three-founhs of all resident Tutors on each campus. (ii) Proposals concerning instruction that are not considered major shall originate with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the campus where they are intended to be put into effect, and shall be presented by the Dean to the Faculty on that campus. The procedure set fonh above for the approval or rejection of proposals shall be followed, except that it shall apply only on the campus concerned. (iii) The President may refuse to accept the resignation of the Deans or the Instruction Committee, any or all of them, whenever in his judgment such resignation would be detrimental to the proper functioning of the College; provided, however, that if any six or more Tutors shall petition the Visitors and Governors, the latter shall review the President's decision within four weeks, during which time the Deans and the Instruction Committee shall continue in office. (iv) In the event that the proposal be defeated and the resignations be accepted, the President shall proceed to the choice of new Deans in accordance with the provisions of Article IV (2) (b). (b) Upon petition of not less than one-tenth of the Tutors on either campus, the Dean and Instruction Committee on that campus shall consider any recommendation concerning instruction that may be made by the petitioning members, and the Dean and the Instruction Committee shall report to the Faculty within one year their proposal concerning it. They shall decide whether their proposal is a major proposal, and the procedure of Article IX (1) shall apply. (2) Faculty Meetings. (a) Regular monthly meetings of the Faculty shall be called upon due notice by the President who shall preside. In the absence of the President, the Dean shall preside. In the absence of the President and the Dean, the Faculty shall elect one of its members to preside. (b) Special meetings of the Faculty may be called upon due notice by the President, either at his own discretion or at the request of five Faculty members. - 24 - (c) Due notice shall be construed to mean no less than three days' notice, except in cases of emergency. (d) A quorum shall consist of a majority of the Faculty in residence except as otherwise provided. (3) !he Secretary of the Faculty. At the last regular meeting of an academic year the Faculty on each campus shall elect one of its members then in at least his third year at the College, as Secretary. The Secretary shall, assist in the preparation and circulation of the agenda for Faculty meetings, shall keep the minutes of such meetings, and shall collect and circulate reports of Faculty committees. AnicleX THE SCHOLARS-IN-RESIDENCE AND THE ARTISTS-IN-RESIDENCE The Scholars-in-Residence and the Anists-in-Residence shall be appointed by the Board of Visitors and Governors on the recommendation of the President after consultation with the Dean and the Instruction Committee on the campus where the Scholars and Artists shall reside. Article XI THE STUDENTS (1) The primary responsibilities of the students are to study and to make themselves as competent as possible in all parts of the St. John's Program. Their advice and service shall be sought by the Faculty in such matters and in such ways as may best serve the general welfare of the College. (2) The students of St. John's College in Annapolis shall constitute the Student _Polity of St. John's College in Annapolis; the students of St. John's College in Santa Fe shall constitute the Student Polity in Santa Fe. (3) The Student Polity in Annapolis or in Santa Fe may establish for itself a government which is representative of all Polity members. The Dean on each campus may delegate to the Student Government a share of the responsibility for the general welfare of the students and whatever government of the students may be necessary for the greatest possible attamment of the aims of the program. The duties of . the Student Government may include: (a) the management of funds available to the Student Polity; (b) the sanctioning of all student clubs, organizations, and activities, and their regulation, if necessary; - 25 - �(c) the representation of the students of St. John's College to the community outside the College; (d) the establishment and maintenance of formal channels of communication between the students and the spokesmen of the Faculty; and (e) any other duties agreed upon by the students and the Dean. Article XII 1HE GRADUATE INSTITUTE (1) The Director ' (a) The President, after consultation with the Deans and a committee of four, two from each campus, selected from among themselves by the Tutors having tenure, shall recommend to the Board of Visitors and Governors for appointment from the Tutors one of their number as Director of the Graduate Institute to serve for three years with powers and duties as hereinafter provided. (b) There is vested in the Director, acting under the authority of the Chairman of the Instruction Committee, responsibility and authority for the organization and supervision of the graduate program of instruction in the liberal arts, and for matters concerning the general welfare of the students and for whatever government may be necessary for the greatest possible attainment of the aims of the program. (c) To assist in carrying out his duties the Director may recommend a Tutor to be appointed by the President with the title of Assistant Director. (4) Procedure for Instructional Proposals. Any proposals concerning major matters of instruction and policy shall originate with the Director and the Committee for the Graduate Institute and shall be submitted to the Instruction Committee of the College. If approved by the Instruction Committee, such proposals shall then be presented to the Faculty in accordance with the provision for major proposals. Article XIII THE ALUMNI (1) Alumni shall be life-long members of the College, since St..John's College is a community not limited by geographical location or fixed periods of time. (2) The Faculty of the Graduate Institute. 11 I I (a) The Director, after consultation with the Committee for the Graduate Institute, and in accordance with the recommendation of the Instruction Committee of the College, shall recommend to the President Tutors of the Graduate Institute for appointment to teach in the Graduate Institute for one session. (b) The Faculty of the Graduate Institute, acting for the Tutors of the College, shall have the authority to recommend to the Visitors and Governors candidates for the appropriate degree. (2) The Alumni Association shall be the formal means by which alumni participate in the life of the College. Through the election of Alumni members of the Board of Visitors and Governors, alumni share in the direction of that life. In these and other ways, alumni shall be given the opponunity to serve the College. (3) The College shall cooperate with the Alumni Association to enable alumni to assist in providing services such as recruiting and interviewing prospective students, placing graduates in appropriate employment, and advising students concerning admission to graduate and professional schools. (3) Committee for the Graduate Institute. (a) The Committee for the Graduate Institute shares with the Director responsibility for the program of instruction of the Graduate Institute and for the general welfare of the students. - 26 (b) The Committee shall consist of three Tutors residing on the same campus as the Director who have taught in at least one full session of the Institute, in addition to the Director, who shall serve as Chairman. Members of the Committee shall serve for three-year terms, in such manner that the term of one member terminates each year. (c) Members of the Committee shall be appointed by the Director with the concurrence of the Dean on the same campus, after consultation with the Committee for the Graduate Institute. (d) In the absence of regularly appointed members, the Director, in consultation with the Committee, may appoint Tutors who are members of the Faculty of the Graduate Institute to serve as members of the Committee for one session of the Institute. (4) The College, in cooperation with the Alumni Association, shall provide seminars and other appropriate educational activities in Annapolis, in Santa Fe, and in other places. - - I 27 - �Article XIV THE STAFF Members of the Administration Staff and members of the Buildings and Grounds Staff assist with the administrative and maintenance duties of the College. They are subject to appropriate Staff Rules and Regulations. Article XV AMENDMENTS AND REVIEW (1) This Polity may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any regular or special meeting of the Board provided written notice of the proposed amendment shall have been given to members of the Board and to the Faculty not less than fifteen days prior to such meeting. The Faculty shall have the right to inform the Board in writing of its recommendation with respect to the proposed amendment by the date of the Board meeting at which the amendment is to be considered. (2) Amendments may be proposed at any regular meeting of either the Faculty in Annapolis or the Faculty in Santa Fe upon petition of not less than ten percent of the members on either campus. No such proposal shall be acted upon earlier than the next regular meeting of the Faculty, whether in Annapolis or in Santa Fe. Two-thirds vote of the entire Faculty in residence shall be required for approval and the amendment shall not become effective unless approved by the Board in the manner set forth in Section (1) above. (3) Every five years this Polity shall be reviewed by a committee of the Faculty elected by a majority vote of the Faculty. The report of the Committee shall be submitted to one regular Faculty meeting and voted upon at the next regular Faculty meeting. A two-thirds vote of the Faculty in residence shall be required for approval. Whatever action is thus recommended by the Faculty shall be submitted to the Board for final decision in the manner set forth in Section (1) above. - 28 - �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Charter and Polity of the College Description An account of the resource Revised and amended editions of the St. John's College Charter and Polity.<br /><br />The College's first Charter and Polity was published as the <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/3768">September 1950</a> issue of the <em><a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/collections/show/37">Bulletin of St. John's College in Annapolis</a></em>. Revised and amended versions were published as individual issues of the <em>Bulletin</em> in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/3746">1951</a>, <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7844">1960</a>, <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7845">1963</a>, and <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7846">1965</a>. <br /><br />The Charter and Polity was published as a separate document in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7850">1955</a> and again from <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7851">1970</a> forward. The most recent version of the Charter and Polity is also available on the College's <a href="https://www.sjc.edu/about/leadership/board-visitors-governors/charter-polity">website</a>. <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Items in the Charter and Polity of the College Collection" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?tags=Charter+and+Polity&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate">Items in the Charter and Polity of the College Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data PDF Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 28 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Charter and Polity of the College, 1976 Description An account of the resource Charter and Polity of the College, May 1976. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Santa Fe, NM Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1976-05 Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Subject The topic of the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Legal instruments Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Charter_and_Polity_1976 Charter and Polity https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/b7151d2faef25702618219262a03973f.mp3 ee63e1a2cad5b9fd192ca595b1a6782b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Lecture Recordings—Santa Fe Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Meem Library Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Santa Fe, NM Sound A resource primarily intended to be heard. Examples include a music playback file format, an audio compact disc, and recorded speech or sounds. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data m4a Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 01:03:30 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource What is the Measure of Electricity? Description An account of the resource Audio recording of a lecture given by tutor Howard Fisher on February 23, 2024 as part of the Dean's Lecture & Concert Series. The Dean's Office has provided this description of the event: “Faraday made use of numerous electrical measuring instruments; but what, exactly, did they measure? What properties of electricity are “measurable” at all? Faraday’s efforts to identify these properties raised a question which Meno would have recognized: how can we know the properties of electricity unless we first know what electricity actually is?” Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fisher, Howard J., 1942- Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Santa Fe, NM Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2024-02-23 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Meem Library has been given permission to make this item available online. Type The nature or genre of the resource sound Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource mp3 Subject The topic of the resource Faraday, Michael, 1791-1867 Electricity Relation A related resource <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7885" title="What is the Measure of Electricity? Transcript">https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7885</a> Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SF_FisherH_What_is_the_Measure_of_Electricity_2024-02-23 Friday night lecture https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/b4c8cf160d212f19ef6557c0ee686648.jpg f67b7516f61c942e4f98ce66020f6089 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Image Collection—Annapolis Description An account of the resource <p>The Greenfield Library Image Collection houses over 5,000 photographs, postcards, drawings, and other graphic materials.  The images in the collection document the history, academic, and community life of St. John’s College. </p> To learn more about the Greenfield Library's archives use policy or to obtain high-resolution images, please see the <strong><a title="Image Collection Use Policy" href="http://www.sjc.edu/academic-programs/libraries/greenfield-library/policies/#photographicarchivepolicy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Library’s Image Collection Use Policy</a></strong>.<br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Photographic Archives" href="http://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=7">Items in the Image Collection—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context imagecollectionannapolis Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photograph Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 20.5 x 25.5 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource <span>Dwight D. Eisenhower Speaking at a Podium at the Opening of the Francis Scott Key Auditorium and Mellon Hall, St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland</span> Description An account of the resource <span>Dwight D. Eisenhower speaking at a podium at the opening of the Francis Scott Key Auditorium and Mellon Hall, St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland, May 22, 1959.</span><br /><br />Eisenhower's speech is reprinted in <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=miua.4728423.1959.001&amp;seq=462">Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1959: containing the public messages, speeches, and statements of the president, January 1 to December 31, 1959. Washington: Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration, pages 416-419</a>.<br /><br />A recording of Eisenhower's speech is available from the <a href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/329120284">National Archives</a>. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Warren, Marion E. Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1959-05-22 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College owns the rights to this photograph. Type The nature or genre of the resource Still Image Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource jpeg Subject The topic of the resource Eisenhower, Dwight D. (Dwight David), 1890-1969. Weigle, Richard Daniel 1912- Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SJC-P-2469 Honorary Alumni Presidents https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/0b54541a0fd59f70eb9001f8e04351ed.jpg ebaa3d5250a35231294d176b5c56f379 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Image Collection—Annapolis Description An account of the resource <p>The Greenfield Library Image Collection houses over 5,000 photographs, postcards, drawings, and other graphic materials.  The images in the collection document the history, academic, and community life of St. John’s College. </p> To learn more about the Greenfield Library's archives use policy or to obtain high-resolution images, please see the <strong><a title="Image Collection Use Policy" href="http://www.sjc.edu/academic-programs/libraries/greenfield-library/policies/#photographicarchivepolicy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Library’s Image Collection Use Policy</a></strong>.<br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Photographic Archives" href="http://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=7">Items in the Image Collection—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context imagecollectionannapolis Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photograph Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 25.5 x 20.5 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Richard D. Weigle and Dwight D. Eisenhower at the Opening of the Francis Scott Key Auditorium and Mellon Hall, St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland Description An account of the resource <span>Richard D. Weigle and Dwight D. Eisenhower at the opening of the Francis Scott Key Auditorium and Mellon Hall, St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland, May 22, 1959.</span><br /><br />Eisenhower's speech is reprinted in <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=miua.4728423.1959.001&amp;seq=462">Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1959: containing the public messages, speeches, and statements of the president, January 1 to December 31, 1959. Washington: Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration, pages 416-419</a>.<br /><br />A recording of Eisenhower's speech is available from the <a href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/329120284">National Archives</a>. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Warren, Marion E. Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1959-05-22 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College owns the rights to this photograph. Type The nature or genre of the resource Still Image Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource jpeg Subject The topic of the resource Eisenhower, Dwight D. (Dwight David), 1890-1969. Weigle, Richard Daniel 1912- Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SJC-P-2465 Honorary Alumni Presidents https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/318341d6fcc64e7a8c1d1f0e0cc14f95.jpg 3b2ba80ececc6da62b66be445cc8af27 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Image Collection—Annapolis Description An account of the resource <p>The Greenfield Library Image Collection houses over 5,000 photographs, postcards, drawings, and other graphic materials.  The images in the collection document the history, academic, and community life of St. John’s College. </p> To learn more about the Greenfield Library's archives use policy or to obtain high-resolution images, please see the <strong><a title="Image Collection Use Policy" href="http://www.sjc.edu/academic-programs/libraries/greenfield-library/policies/#photographicarchivepolicy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Library’s Image Collection Use Policy</a></strong>.<br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Photographic Archives" href="http://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=7">Items in the Image Collection—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context imagecollectionannapolis Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photograph Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 25.5 x 20.5 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Richard D. Weigle Speaking at The Dedication of Francis Scott Key Memorial Auditorium, with Dwight D. Eisenhower Seated on Stage, St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland Description An account of the resource <span>Richard D. Weigle speaking at the dedication of Francis Scott Key Memorial Auditorium, with Dwight D. Eisenhower seated on stage, St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland, May 22, 1959.</span><br /><br />Eisenhower's speech is reprinted in <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=miua.4728423.1959.001&amp;seq=462">Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1959: containing the public messages, speeches, and statements of the president, January 1 to December 31, 1959. Washington: Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration, pages 416-419</a>.<br /><br />A recording of Eisenhower's speech is available from the <a href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/329120284">National Archives</a>. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Warren, Marion E. Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1959-05-22 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College owns the rights to this photograph. Type The nature or genre of the resource Still Image Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource jpeg Subject The topic of the resource Eisenhower, Dwight D. (Dwight David), 1890-1969. Weigle, Richard Daniel 1912- Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SJC-P-1745 Honorary Alumni Presidents https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/eeebc4c49ff9c81d0917111a7fe60c24.jpg 2264bc37c72da335cb06fb15c4dfdae4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Image Collection—Annapolis Description An account of the resource <p>The Greenfield Library Image Collection houses over 5,000 photographs, postcards, drawings, and other graphic materials.  The images in the collection document the history, academic, and community life of St. John’s College. </p> To learn more about the Greenfield Library's archives use policy or to obtain high-resolution images, please see the <strong><a title="Image Collection Use Policy" href="http://www.sjc.edu/academic-programs/libraries/greenfield-library/policies/#photographicarchivepolicy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Library’s Image Collection Use Policy</a></strong>.<br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Photographic Archives" href="http://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=7">Items in the Image Collection—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context imagecollectionannapolis Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photograph Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 25.5 x 17 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dwight D. Eisenhower Giving an Address at the Dedication of the Francis Scott Key Memorial Auditorium, St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland Description An account of the resource <span>Dwight D. Eisenhower giving an address at the dedication of the Francis Scott Key Memorial Auditorium, St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland, May 22, 1959.</span><br /><br />Eisenhower's speech is reprinted in <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=miua.4728423.1959.001&amp;seq=462">Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1959: containing the public messages, speeches, and statements of the president, January 1 to December 31, 1959. Washington: Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration, pages 416-419</a>.<br /><br />A recording of Eisenhower's speech is available from the <a href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/329120284">National Archives</a>. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Warren, Marion E. Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1959-05-22 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College owns the rights to this photograph. Type The nature or genre of the resource Still Image Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource jpeg Subject The topic of the resource Eisenhower, Dwight D. (Dwight David), 1890-1969. Weigle, Richard Daniel 1912- Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SJC-P-1510 Honorary Alumni Presidents https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/8df75368ff8aee8317b698ab4609dfcc.pdf f4e27c629bc287e1425faeb15a20319a PDF Text Text .... Trustees .. .. NT ER. �AN ACCOUNT OF THE CEREMON Y OF LAYING THE CORNER STONE OF THE NEW BUILDING, AT ST. JOHN'S COLLEG E, PERFORMED BY THE Hon. JOHN STEPHEN, Judge of the Court of Appeals WITH AN ADDRESS DELIVERED ON THE OCCASION, BY .JOHN .JOHNSON, Esq., one of the Visitors and Governors JUNE 18TH, 1635. WITH A HISTORICAL NOTICE OF THE INSTITUTION, A CATALOGUE OF THE OFFICERS AND STUDENTS, AND .A. COPY OJ' THE SUBSCRIPTIONS MADE TO THE FUNDS ANNAPOLIS Published by request of the Board of Trustees JEREMIAH HUGHES, PRINTER �E. ORI GIN OF ST. JOH N'S COL LEG ide THE first act of Assembly in Mar ylan d, to provding for foun for Collegiate Education, passed in 178 2, requ ired , was a Seminary on the Eastern Sho re. It be raised ld shou by the char ter, that a sum of money £50 0 for to l eqna by contribution, for its endowment, s were year five each county on the Eastern Sho re; and. In an . itic,n cond allowed for the performance of this at ted prin , king erta account of the progress of the und , a1ly hatic emp d, urge Phil adel phia in 1784, it was D GOO hy e, mad be t that ''las ting pro1Jisions mus n of PA• EDU CA TIO N,fo r trai ning up a successio for LIB NEs; D1v1 and ES TRJO Ts, LAW GIV ERS , SAG re her fair ER TY will not dei~n to dwell, but whe by her side; companion KNOWLEDGE flourishes ered, but nor can GOVERNMENT be duly administ , VrnT uE, w~ere the principles of REL IGIO N, JusT ICE ENC E SCI CON for CE, DIEN SonRrnTY and OBE people of SAK E, are uph eld. " Thi s appeal to the . In less the Eastern Sho re, was not made in vainsubscribed e than.five months, upwards of £10 ,000 wer that Sho re; on ties coun ous vari the in for the College, to put the and measures wer e immediately adopted list of the Sem inar y inh> operation. An accu rate count, ~c." subscribers, is pres erve d in the above "./l.c sense of its w'.1ich exhibits, in a strik ing manner, the shington Tfla importance then felt by the people. , and own Colle!fe was accordingly opened at Chestert erconf the held its first Annual Commencement, for at rch Chu ring of Degrees, May 16th , 1783, in the aPhil of D. that place. The Rev. W. Smi th, D. son having delphia, pres ided on the occa~ion, and his �4 the been !ho ugh t ,vo rth, y of Th e Dfirst honour, spoke the valedictory oration egree of Bac hel or of trt s, was con ferr ed on fiv men, Alumni oft he ollege. Copies of the e gen~Je ~tory and salu tato ry or~ti_ons: are p1·eserved in v;~ed1 _e a ove ",llccount &c " ~n rnd1cate tha t the were of unco'mm. i,nterest and effect I exercises 4, the College on 178 ay, •.. nfM Gen W was l,onoured with a v,s1 t rom , who ToN be I.NG ASH • 13 th of er ..:ame a memb e oa rd of Tru stee s ai d •IS enrolled among th cent of its ; t l Th e College Ed'fie most munifi ns. was l60 feet in len gth ,a trhoree stories in hei gh/a bee ove the b ~ !se me nl, and con tain ed rooms ior more than 100 St uae • was nts. Per h aps 1t to an . err or, ere ct one b ·1d· of tl~ese dimensions, t~t ea, f of following the i:u atg l ? of sep ara te Halls pa o1 a smaller num ber each o different par ts of th; College grounds. In cod n e of this arra nge ;en t,hw hen the bui ldin g :;~ t~~I e some yea rs sin ce , e w ole was red uce d to ru·ms. A ? err or of more conse e wa_s committed by forming the Universitlj of if.uen~ and rn two Bra nch es one on the Eastern a~d one ar,11 tl~e We ste rn Sho re' !n_the preamble to the cha rt on • '' ashington C II of er it is ~tated tha t ''th • ~i a17 J_ la~dable und er~ ah: hat h been reta rde d ry mcz den ts of a p bl' nat ure , but chiFjiy b th gre _u g zc fi.rin di.fficulty ot'. a ~'h oree if at 'J situ atio n on eit"tter u. th • iSem a for te, Sta _zsh ' ~biar,1/ of uni ver sal learningo' 'Vmc mig ht b if • enefit and c _~f ::• youth of bothe;ho'J,~tha ~;11wa~ dete;:i.:~"::~•e~ t circumstances ze inh abi tan ts of each Sh ese sho t' fet't be uld . nce ore ;1 • o con• fi sui t· the. ir own co nvenze fre ely and g din ~un n :;: ;w i'lg a College or Sem h::t1/I ng rni lea al <;r gen if for themselves, und er p ,; law of:' n : sanctio 'd • er haps the re wer e co 11 s1 cra twn 'J • t hat p · d s m operation at ex /r1 0 , ren der ing suc h a course necessary or are we r pe ient, of which res :ot now sensible. Inteligen~ men on both Sho er, ver y generalJy, question the pol icy of tha~ a:: ::vgem ent , and app ear tyg;::~ e been far bet ter to to be convinced tha t it would hav Sta te at some one con cen trat e the pat ron age of the establishment of a the for point favourably situ ate d, n, nuw so fre que ntly Sta te University. Th is opinio the people of Ma ryex pressed in eve ry qua rter , b) effect in the Annual land, is P.mbodied wit h gre at the Hon. JoH N B • Rep ort to the Leg isla ture , by ted to visit St. Joh n's MoRRls, of the com mit tee app ni;i 3. College, De cem ber session, 183 College is dee me d n's "T he pro spe rity of St. Joh t the you th from tha a sub jec t of gre at imp ort anc e, so ns of the Sta te, isio div at eve ry portion of the two gre assurance of ed und gro l may convene wit h the wel education, and at the being able to a1.:.quire a libe ral riot ic anticipations of same time, consummate the pat ion bet wee n the two the cha rter ; ''th at the connex by uniformity in shores, will be gre atly increased the adv anc em ent of mannf:!rs and join t efforts for no way can this paLit era tur e." It is believed in d as by sustaining rental aspiration be so well rea lize rnin g at the sea t Lea on a liberal scale a Sem ina ry of chi ld are con ven ed, and ent par e her n-w of Leg isla tio me re511latio ns for the one to aid in devisrng wholeso oth er to acq uire the the welfare of So cie ty- the in the reg uhr coursP. prin cip les of knowledge, wh ich n und er the favoraof events is to be put in requisitio nne rs" and ear ly ma ble auspices of "un ifo rmi ty of associations." not be chosen to Language more felicitous could neous sentiments of utt er wh at must be the sponta who knows the story eve ry true friend of the Sta te, St. John's, like . of this unf ortu nat e institution sub jec t to calamity Washi11g/0'1, College , has been ten ce, almost simuland adv ers ity -ca lled into exis l action by a wis e tan eou sly , and set into successfu , it seems to hav e gov ern me nt and a liberal peo ple strike the m bot h, uld been fate d tha t the paralysis sho manent vigour and per the in atta before eith er could ma ture d institutions. efficiency tha t belong to well �6 e name is "l'he same wor thy agen t, whose venerabl ton College, enrolled in the earl y Hecords of Washing nt and estabtook the most active part in the endowme versity. A lishment of this second bran ch of the Uni , for the him list of the subscriptions obta ined by the books on benefit of St. John 's CoJJege, is pres erve d equal to was of the Board of Trus tees . The amount ch on bran r othe that which had been obtained for the two sum ch whi of , the Eastern Sho re; i. e. £10 ,000 and tor Rec ''the by thousand pounds wer e subs crib ed subsc:rip Visit01·s of the .11.nnapolis Scho ol." This Ann athe of tors Visi tion secu red to the Rec tor and tors Visi two g intin appo polis School, the priv ileg e of also e ileg priv a ege; Coll and Governors of St. John 's in the same exte nde d to tbe othe r class of subscribers, £10 00 each for r erno Gov and tor ratio, viz: -on e Visi Thi s corsubs crib ed and secu red for the College. Wil liam 's poration was originally called ''Ki ng s, the balScho ol," and possessed considerable fund convey to St. ance of which, 1t was proposed, also, to pleted. The John 's College, after it should be com to coup le the Rec tor and Visitors, how ever , proposed tion, that in following condition with thei r subscrip Visitors and case of a vacancy in thei r number of enin g, out happ Governors, ''to fill up the vacancy so th £10 00 wor be l of such citizens of Annapolis as shal not apwas n tatio curr ent money each ," Thi s limi ernors, Gov and prov ed or acee pted , "the Visi tors prin the izn wit! rty, not thinki:ng themselves at libe ded, foun is ege Coll the ciples of equ ality upo n 'Which conbe l shal ncy vaca that the choice to fill up such this from And lis." apo .fine d to the citiz ens of .llnn ool, Sch the of tors Visi proposition the Rec tor and s11hscription unanimously agre ed to rece de. The ir Visitors ancl two and e, mad of £20 00, was ther efor e Boa rd. the to rned retu and Gover11ors were elected 7 chosen by subscribers, The original. members, were the foll owr ng:WJL LIA ~ WCELsrGgE¥;r ' D. D. THO MA S J. NIC HOL AS CARROLL, Esq. JOH N H . STO NE, Esq. WIL LIA M BEA NES , Esq. RIC HAR D RID GEL Y, Esq. SAM UEL CHA SE, Ellq. JOHN THO MA S, Esq. THO MA S STO NE, Bsq: N ' Es q. ALE XAN DER C. HANSO THOMAS JEN NIN GS, Esq. b the Visitors and en d \ver e the following-: me1:11bers {bn The othe rcons titut e t e oar , Governors to JA~ IES BRI CE, JOH N ALL EN THOMAS, GUS TAV US R BROWN, EDW ARD GAN TT, CLE MEN T HIL L, RIC HAR D SPR IGG , CHA RLE S CAR ROL L, of C. JER EM IAH T. CHA SE, CHA RLE S WA LLA CE, os h JOH N CAR ROL L, D. D. 1,; t . Feb held h Boa rd was • fled before A. C. The first mee tmg oft e Cou rt, by 178 6. The members wer e fq~~e1 General thei r beof ion arat Hanson, one of the J ~d.ges o decl two oaths the ng taki d a repe atin g and_ s?bscr1b~n.~ Laws of and n utio ti Can h10n lief in the Chr1s.t1an Rehg ons e t by of fidelity reqm red h B ard proc eede d to this State. . ~·ng the ColJege. On the 1st of Mar ch 178 6 t i .llnnanolis and t1sd er for es!a fix upon a place prop . r e , ts wer 1 wer e .nomrna e give n . ballo Two places on Y latte r plac e. Upper Mar l borough; wheia1;:~efor the term s of the to , rdin for the former, and two. of four lot a of •of acco is, Thi s election of Annapol possess1 f the ed use o the for d base . secu r the Cha rter, with pure , in the city acre s of land r ~r �8 the public, and conveyed, in 1744, by Stephen Bord- . Iy, Esq. to Thomas Blad~n, Esq. t~en Governor of Maryland. 1 his lot has smce remarneJ the property of the College, and is the scite on which the present buildings stand. . . On the 10th of March 1786, it was resolved to finish the building, then standing on the ground, for the purposes of the College, and to add wings on the· North and South ends, according to a plan furn ished by Mr. Joseph Clarke. This plan was never executed, and is probably lost. The following gentleme n composed the Building Committee. ALEXANDER CONTEE H ANSO K , NIC HOLAS CA RRO LL , RICH ARD RI DGEL Y, Esquires. DR. JoHN McDoWELL was the first officer chosen to preside over the College as Professor of Mathe~atics; and he was afterwards promoted to the station of Principal, which office he discharged with great ability for many years. The 11th day of Nov. 1789 was selected for the occasion of opening the Institution, and the Rev. Dr. Smith was requested to attend· as Principal of the College, pro tempore, and to deliver a sermon. The dedication was performed with much solemnity, all the public bodies being in attendance, and forming a long procession from the State House to the College Hall. In addition to the sermon by Dr. Smith} an oration, by Mr. Higginbottom, Professor of Ancient Languages, was delivered on the advantages of classical education. And from the account published by the authority of the Trustees, it is evident that the high reputation of this College, for its classical course, has been owing, in a great measure, to the thorough discipline which was then provided, and which has been preserved to the present time. The Trustees proceeded to the appointment of other Professors, as the increase of their funds gave them the necessary means; and in 1792 the sum of EJ7·5 was expended for the purchase, in Loadon, of 9 ihe requisite Philosophical apparatus. Most of the articles are still found in the College, thou_gh $ome important ones, among which was a th~odolite, have been lost, At this period there were six l'rofessors and Teachers, constantly employed in the College; ~nd, for ~nany years, its reputntion was such that. a. long succession of distinguished scholars took then• ., deg rees at its annual Con1me nc'ements, On Friday, N ov. 2 2d 1805 (a day or singular fatality and ill -omen to education in Maryland,~ lea~e was granted in the Ho.use of Delegates to br_mg 1 . ''an act to withdrn:µJ the funds f rom f,flashington and St. John's Cqtleges." The strongest possiblf!: influence whi-ch the enemies· of ,the College could command was concentrated; and brought to bear upon it; but so firm were .;:he convictions of the impolicy and injustice of the a0t, then felt, that a majority pf but eight members, unde}• all the exciteme nt of the ticcasion , could be zll'evaile'd on to take the fatal step. "{his decision was not had in the House of Delegates till thy 1st of Ja111rary, 1806. And a strong indication of the dispassionate judgment of the Honse~ on this important matter, is founi;l in the vote subsequently taken at the s~me s~ssion: upon a r esolution introduced to restor~ S 1600 per annum from the funds which had been withdrawn, for the p urpose of enabling _the Trustees to continue the institution. The question was t~ken upan this resolution on the '27th· Jan. 1806, and was lost by only a· sing1e vote. In consequence of this a,ction on part of the Gov~ ernmer;it, tht:: Visitors arid Governors were under the r!ecessity of passing the following resolufion on tho. 12tQ of May 1806. . "Wherea~, by virtue of an act of the Legislature of ldaryland, at their last session, the donationfrom the State to St . .John's College of £1750 per, 9nnum,. wilt,cease am/ determine on thtJ 1§.t day of J,une next, therefore,-Resolved, that the , Principal, Vice Principal, Professors and M aste.rs of said College, be discontinued on tile 10th day of Au,'.: ~ • I �• 11 10 gust, ne:i:t." Such provisions we1·e made, howev:1, at the same time, as the funds would allow for the mamtenance of a respectable school; but its character as a College was lost. Yet the Visitors and Gover~ors hav_e never abandoned the hope under the rnostpressrng period of their necessity, of ultimately fulfilling the designs of its founders. They have, accordingly, appealed to the Legislature, at several periods, for a restoration to the enjoyment of their rights, and the justice of their claim has been repeatedly acknowledged; and acts of partial indemnity have been passed in theit• favour. In 1811 an act was passed, appropriating 81000 per annum on the same terms, with similar sums granted to other county Seminaries. In 1821 a lottery was also granted, v,hich added ~20,000 to the permanent funds. Finally, in 1833, an act of compromise was passed, by whic-h 82000 per annum, in addition to former grants, were secured to the College forever, which the Visitors and Governors accepted in full of their legal and equitable claims; and the deed of release, required by the act, was executed and entered upon the records of the court of appeals. By the same act, ten of the highest ofti• cers of the State Government were introduced into the Board of Trustees. These measures have gone far to restore to the College the confidence of the people of Maryland, and the consequent increase of patronage, has required the addition of another building for the accommodation of students. It was accordingly resolved, Feb. 15, 1835, to solicit funds, by subscription, for this purpose and for the general improvement of the library and apparatus. Upwards of deven thousand dollars have been already subscribed, and a commodious edifice, 80 feet by 40, 3 stories in height above the basement, has been commenced, and will be completed by the ensuing spring~ The foundation walls are built of stone, in the most substantial manner, furnishing one large and convenient public room, in the basement story, in addition to a kitchen, ct:llars, &c. of sufficient size for a public establishment. The walls above the basement, are of brick, with partitions of the same material, and will contain twenty-five sepa1·ate rooms, for the accommodation of fifty Students, besides rooms for the family of a· Professor of the College. The Corner Stone was cut from a single block of granite, in the form of an Octagon, four feet across, corresponding with the form and dimensions of the angular buttresses. The ceremony of laying the Corner Stone, was preceded by Prayer, by the Rev. Dr. Humphreys, the President of the Coilege. The following inscrip• tion, enclosed in a sealed gla1s vase, was deposited in a mcta\\ic box, undt•r the stone: "This corner stone wits laid on Thursday, the 18th day of June, A. D., 1835, by the Hon. John iStephen, Presiding Judge in the Court of Appeals, the Rev. Hector Humphreys~ D. D. President of St. John's College, and John Johnson, Esq. one of the Visitors and Governors, being present and assisting; His Excellency .11.ndrew Jaclrson, being President of the United States; His Excellency James Thomas, being Governor of Maryland, and the Hon. John S. Martin, Thomas Veazey, Geol'ge C. Washington, .Nathaniel F. Pftilliams, and Gwinn Harris, being the :Executive Council; and Dr. Dennis Claude, being Mayor of Annapolis. Ramsa.1/ Waters, John Johnson, Building Committee. Nicholas Brewer, Jr. R. C. Long, Architect, Elijah Welts, Builder." ! After the ceremony was performed, the following remarks were m&.de by the presiding Judge, standing on the Corner Stone. "The object of erecting the Edifice, of which the corner stone has just been laid, is one of vital importance to the future happmess, prosperity and welfare �12 ~r .that community of which we are members. fier~ likewise, is to be laid the corner stone of that mteliectual cultivation, which is to develope the powers of the youthful mind, and enable it to gather w~alth from those treasures of antiquity, which have outh~ed the wreck of Empires, and s?rvived the a!l-moulderrng hand of time. J;Iere the rising generat10n are te ac~ guire the rudiments of s~ience,_ aud to ~e taught thostl elemental principles of learmng, which elsewh~re, :µnder pigher auspices, are to be foster~d and cherished and receive additional culturP, until they expand in(o full growth and maturity. To the mind ~f the Patriot, the spectacle which the _ceremony of this day has exhibited, must bring a tram of thought, o~ t~e roost gratifying and consoling character. Withm these walls, the first lessons of that wisdom are to be taught, which is to guide and control the f~ture ~estinies of this rising Republic, to sway the dehberat1?ns of its Rulers, and elevate its character to that high ~egree of splendour,· d!gnity and ~enown, to whi~h, under the benignant smiles of Provi9ence, and a virtuous and enlightened administration of its affair&, it ~eems to be tt:nding with a step as certain as fate, aud :.ureas the advance of time itself. To the friend and Jover of his country, 'no human interest can present stronger claims to patronage and support, than the cause of science arid literature; by their lights ar.d influence, the mind is invigorated, the taste refine~, and the heart warmed with noble and elevated sentiments. But above all, in a Government founded, as ou1·'s is, upon the virtue and intellig~nce of ~he pe_ople, a gen6ral diffusion of knowledge is essential to its prosperity and permanent existence. May we not then, indulge the pleasing, the delightfol hope, that from within these w . dls, the lights ot science will go forth and pervade every corner of our land, illumine the mind() of the rising generation, and impart to posterity those blessings which learning and virtue never fail to bestow. ADDRESS BY JOHN JOHNSON, Esq. l)ELIVERED IN THE HALL OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE~ June 18th, 1835. The occasion which calls us together is one which ~u]dresst>s itself mo,,t powerfully to the best aftections of the human heart. We are engaged in providing means tor the education of the rising generation. In supplying that aliment for the minds of those who are to fill the places now occupied_ by us, without ;Vhich the glorious institutions transmitted by our fore1athers to ourselves, would be but a barren and unprofitable inheritance. In vain did the Heroes of the Revolution toil and bleed to free us from the galling yoke of Colonial servitude. In vain did the warm currents of their lives best blood, 8tream over the fields, whose ab~ndance we now enjoy, if we, their sons do not furnish the future owners of all these blessings, with a full knowledge of their inappreciable value: . ~t may be truly said, that the eyes of the whole c1 v1hzed world are anxiously directed to the career of youthful America. The friends of freedom regard her progress with exulting anticipations it is true, but with hopes sometimes overcast with gloomy forebodings of the future. The advocates of despotic authority, dreading the influence which her bright example may extrt over those who have so long been the victims of that authority, watch every indication of degeneraCY, eagerly longing for _the moment, when. the spectacle of bleedin~ and dismembered America may be a warning to ~woid, rather than an example to follow. ,!\nd shall we not employ all the means placed by a �14 gracious .i.Jrov1oence within our reach, to fulfill the hopes of our friends, and disappoint the expect ations of our enemies? Shall we preter mit any effort~ which may sustain, in all their purity , the be<1utiful fabric of Repub lican Institutions, purcha sed with the blood of our glorious ancestors, from a nation whose valor until then, had never been successfully resisted? and how is this priceless treasu re to be preser ved-th ese inestimable institutions upheld and defend ed, but by teachin g their full value to those to whose keepin g they must ere long be confided? There is no way in which this can be done, unless education is diffused widely among the people . To apprec iate a blessing, its worth must be known, and it can only be known , by assiduously cultiva ting the mi.nds of those upon whom the impression is to be made. A glorious destiny awaits Repub lican Ameri ca if she is faithful to the principles which led to her indepe ndence . She has already taken the lead of the older nations of Europe in the science of Government. The votaries of freedom there, pant in vain for the high prize which descen ded to us from our venera ted forefa thers- oppressed and borne down as they are with the barbar rous institutions, of barbarous and benigh ted ages; institutions interw oven with the very web of their social systems, and which cannot be overth rown, or even essentially modified, withou t dange r to the fabricks themselves; ages must roll away before the same perfec tion in Gover nment is attaine d there, as exists with us-no ne disput e our superiority in every thing which relates to political organization. It is admitted and unquestionable, and if we can likewise outstri p other nations in the cultiva tion of the sciences and the lessons of practic al wisdom, we shall prove ourselves deserv ing of the blessings we enjoy. It is not to be expec ted, or perhap s desire d, that the same high finish and elegant polish in literature, shall be acquir ed in this countr y, as is to be fount! in the higher grades of Europ ean society; There the great accumulation and concentration of wealth, in 15 the hands of a few, enable them to dedica te thcil whole lives to the cultiva tion of those arts which serve rather to adorn than benefit niank ind-w ith us, this can never be the case. 1 he genius of OUl'institutions is alike opposed to the monopoly of \~e.alth or_kno:V· ledge. They were framed 111 a sp1_r1t of d1ffus1 vc philan thropy , and \vhilst the law provides that we.llth shall not accumulate for ages, the avenues to knowledge are thrown open alike to all. The great object is to enlighten the mass. The int_elligence_of a nation consists in the aggreg ate of the wisdom of its people , and not in possessing a few dazzling ~uminaries, whos_e brilliJncy but deepen s the surrounclrng gloom. It ~s not meant that the minds of all can be equally cultivated. Societ y is a chain of dependencies, and some are invited to the discha rge of duties, which rtquir e higher attainments than are necessary. to the parts which others are called on to play. Whilst therefo re, the streng th and durabi lity of the Government, and the happiness and indepe ndence of ~he ~eople, arc essentially promo ted by the spread of rntelhgence and education 2 it is of the highes t importance that means should be liberal ly provid ed, for the more elaborate instruc tion of those who may be regard ed as the especial conser vators of the institutions of the countr y, and upon whose success in the great strugg le for mental superi ority, th@ fame of the nation must necessarily rest. For this reason, it is the duty of all who cheris h the honor and welfare of the State, not only to furnish abund antly the means of improvement to the mass of the community, to enable them to ap• precia te truly, the happiness of their condit!on, and to choose discre etly, those to whom the machi nery of Government shall be confided, but it is also their imperativ e obligation to supply semina~•ies, _where the most perfec t cultur e, of which the mmd is capabl e, may be afforded. In propor tion as these are multiplied, and society is filled with a class of men, eminently qualified for �16 the discharge of its most important duties, the danger of selecting unfaithful or incompetent trustees of the public we]fa!'e, is diminished. The conduct and qualifications of every candidate for the popular suffrage, will be vigilantly and searchingly examined, and it wiH rarely happen, that ignorance will escape detection, or presumprion fail of its rebuke. And should the various States of this happy country, ri val each oth e1· in the cat1se of education, with the same zeal which they now display in improving thei r physical condition, in opening avenues to wealth, and adding new impulses to commer<?e, a degree of pros• perity may be attained, which the imagination of the wildest visionary has not yet conceived. Every motive to exertion, which can actuate the human heart, :must exist in a nation like this. Witlt us, there are no privileged orders1 Lorn t-o fill the high places in the State. No sense of conventional inferiority, presses upon the mind here, deadening its energies, and smothering its virtuous aspirations, The highest posts in the State; posts, the possession of which; might thrill with a palpitating gladness, the bosom of the loftiest monarch of the world, are accessible to the humblest iudividual. The staridard of merit in this nation of 1:epublicans, is virtue, intelligence, integrity and devot10n to the public welfare. These are qualifications which depend aot, on blood, on wealth, or adventitious influences of any kind. The son of the humblest peasant within the wide borders of our almo~t li1~itless territory, 01: !he offspring of the poorest artisan 1n our numerous C1t1es, may by his merit alone rise to a height of true glory, whose elevation would r;nder giddy the head of the proudest potentate of Europe. He may be placed at the head of a nation of freemen, whvse selection of him for such a trust stamps him with ~ perpetual and glorious immortalit/ With these motives to stimulate to exertion, who can set bou~ds to Am:erican genius, if proper appliances· are furnished for its careful cultivation. 17 In most of the States of the confederacy, ~his momentous subject is engaging much of _the pubhc attP.?· tion, and large sums have been contr1bu~ed by pubhc and private munificence, for the promotion of ed~ca• tion. In Maryland, a fatal lethargy for ~ long time, seems to have brooded over the public mrnd. In all the other elements of greatness, sufficient activity has been manifested, especially within the compass of the last few ye11rs. Efforts have been made, and are now making, to attract within our borders, by stupen~ous works of internal improvement, the rnexhaustible riches of the western world. The lofty Alleghanies are to be pierced o~ scaled, and a tide of commerce and wealth poured rnto our lap from fields and vallies, which it was supposed we;e separated by impassable barriers. T!iese are achievements to which Maryland enterpr1ze, and Maryland treasure are freely devoted, and if successful as can scarceli be doubted, will reflect imperishabl~ honor upon those who devised, and ~hose. who executed them. But whilst we are pressmg vigorously on the heels, if not ontstrippin~ ou_r sister States in the race of physical and commercial 1mpr?vement, it is not to be disguised, that we are far bc_hrnd _m~st of them ' in furnishino-b the means of educat10,1 w1th1,1 Ve have not yet among us, any our own borders. great State lnstitu~i~n, affor<l~ng adequate facilit~es to our y,mth, of acqmrrng the higher branches of intellectual improvement. In consequ_en?e of the.absence of a liberally endowed and flour1shmg seminary of learning, our youth are compelled to resort ~o o_ther States, where feelings and prjnciples may be 1mbibe_d in opposition to the best interests of the land of their birth. It is natural to the human heart, to feel a strong yearning of affection for the spot_ where the light ?f wisdom first beamed upon_ the mm?·. The pla~~s m which we abode "when hfe was m its sprmg, and which are associated with our freshest recollections-: 3 �IS where the capacities of the mind were first unfolded a1!d the Jessons of virtue and wisdom originally in: ~tilled, ~re alw~ys remembered, even to the dying hour, with fe elings of gratitude and love. Would it not be wise then to tie the sons of Maryland by these golden cords of affection to the land of t~e~r birth, a~d not exp?se them to the perils of a .divided alleg1a?ce? I_t 1s far from the purpose of lhis _ad~ress to excite sentiments of hostili ty, or even of md1fference, to the welfare of our sister States. ~Te all constitute one great family, banded toge1her in the holy brotherhood of affection and mutual interests -Jiving un~er one common government; pursuing the same objects, and Jinked together by a thousand recollecti?ns of mutual dangers ·and mutual support, ~ha~ed with, a?d afforded to each other. The prosperity .o~ each Is the prosperity of the whole, and may the brilliancy of the constellation never be dimmed by the obscuratio n of a solitary star-on the contrarv' PU; earnest w~sh is~ that they may grow brighter, a~d bri~hter, until then· rays shall illuminate the farthest ends o_f the earth: A ll that is urged is, that it is the true d1c~ate of wisdom to bind the sons of Maryland to her s01l, by every sympathy which can penetrate to the recesses of t he human heart. They should be ,t aught_to regard the_land of their birth, as the land by which every blessmg they enjoy has been bestowed and to_whose glory and advancement, they are bound ~o dedicate the best e~ergies of their nature. They ..hould not be permitted to reflect, that whilst they ~re Mary~anders, by the _accideut of birth, they owe to other S~atcs all f~r w?1ch life is worth preserving; 1he educati?n of t heir mrnds, that moral culture which ~nsures. their resp~ct amo~g men, and those religious 1mpressions, on whwh their hopes for eternity are reposed. In additj?n to these inducements, which are surely of so?1e _weight~ the effort now making to establish a !)qur1shrng s~m;nary of learning in Maryland is re- 19 commended by considerations of the truest economy. . The amount annually expended by our young men, who are sent abroad for their education, must necessaril y far exceed the interest of the sum, which would be required to build up a college at home, adequate for every purpose. Independently of \Vhich, what is carried abroad is lost, or only returned rn attachmen ts severed from home; whilst what is expended at home is promotive of the pnblic good, by being more widely diffused . It cannot be doubted, that 8100,000 spent abroad impoverishes the State more than five times t hat su :U spent among ourselves-whilst the first is so much taken from the general mass, never to be restored ; the latter after performing a round of circulation, giving employment to the \lOor, and food to th_e ind ustrious. is returnect to the sources from whence 1t was contrib'uted, by a thousand channels. Why education has been so long neglected in Maryland it is difficult to conceive. A-. early as the year 1784 the attention of the State authorities was called to this subjec t, in order as the preamble t? the charter of Wushington College declares "to raise up, and perpetuate a succession of able and honest men, for dis charging the v.irious offices and duties of the commu11ity, both civil and religious, with usefulness and r eputatio n," and in 1784 an annual donation of £1250 was granted to this College, to be applied to the payment of the salaries of the principal, professors and tutors. In the same year 1784, an act was passed for founding a College on the western shore, and constituting the same, together with Washington College on the.eastern shore, one university, by the name of '.'the Universi ty of Maryland." This institution was in orporated by the name of the Visitors and Govern• ors of St. John's College, and for the purpose of providing a "permanent fund for the further encourage• ment and establishment of the said College," the sum of £ 1750 was ''annually and for ever thereafter given and granted, as a donation by the public, to the US" �20 'lf_thc_ saicl College on the western shore," to be applied rn the same manner as the donatiou to Washington C~lle 9e, "for. the liberal education of youth in the prmc1ples of virtue, knowledge, and useful literature." Thus it will be seen, that our ancestors, those who fought t_he b_attles_ of the Hevolution, and bequeathed us the rich_ inheritance _of freedom, were fully sensible of the mcalculable importance of education and coun_ted not price, in the means of furnishing it. They had Just emerged from the dangers of a bloody and f~arful contes}; and "frighted peace had hardly found time to ]?ant, after the ferocity of the struggle. The music of the martial trumpet, and "the earth9uake shout of victory," had scarcely ceased to ring m the1~ cars, when ~he paramount importance of education arrested their attention and in the circumstanc.e~ in which they were plac~d, the most liberal prov1si_on ~as ma~~ for it. For not only did the St~te, rn its political capacity, grant the donation which has been mentioned, but contributions to the ~m~u~t of upwards of £10,000, were furnished by md1v1duals, for the same elevated and benevolent purpose. . Among these contributors, beside a list of name:-:! "'.h1ch any age or nation might be proud to exh1b1t, 1s to be found that of Washington himself, the man, who had not only "filled the measure of his C()Untry's glory,'' but who had raised the standard of h~~amty, throughout the limits of the civilized world. ' ' 1th _the means thus supplied, St. John's College was estabhshed, and pursued for many years a career of usefulness and honor, dispensing the bles;ings of educat10~ upon hundreds of her sons, and bidding fair to raise the reputation of the State, which founded and foste_red her, to an equal height at least with any ' of her sisters. In 1805, less enlightened and liberal counsels appear to have prevailed, and the funds which had been perpetu~lly dedicated to the support of this institution, were withdrawn. It is not our purpose to speak 21 harshly of the proceedings of that day. It is enough to say, that they fell heavily upon the hearts of those, to whom the interests of education were dear, and that the brightening beams of St. John's were shorn of their lustre. The University, within whose walls had been educated many of the most illustrious men of the age, who had sent forth from her venerable shades, a number of the States, most distinguished ornaments, was doomed for a season, to sicken and languish, from the indifference of the parent, who had engaged by every sanction, to nurture her to the last. But may we not indulge the hope, that these days of neglect are past? That the minds of our fellow citizens are fully awakened to the vjtal importance of building up, and sustaining here at home, a high seminary of learning, commensurate with the progress of society, and the dignity and honor of the State. The Legislature of 1832, influenced by enlightened counsels, and stimulated by a sense of justice, restored a portion of the funds withdrawn in 1805, and incorporated in the Board of Trustees, several of the chief ufficers of the State, thus clearly impressing upon it, the characteristics of a State institution. From that auspicious moment, the progress of the College has been rapidly onward. The Board of Trustees had previously @ngag'ed the services of a gentleman in the capacity of Principal, eminently qualified for the duties of such a station. To the advantages of much experience, deep and various learning, a character of the most elevated cast, he adds a · zeal and devotion which knows no flagging, and a perseverance and assiduity which has never faltered. Under his guidance, with the growing interest manifested by the community for our welfare, the full realization of our hopes can hardly be doubted. · Occupying a position in the confederacy, eminently favorable to the development of her resources, Maryland cannot fail to become one of its most conspicuous · members, if she is faithful to her own best interests. No apathy on the subject of these interests has been' �22 displayed, save only with respect to education. In opening channtls of communication with the distant and fr uitful west, gigantic efforts have been, and arc being made, and mil lions of t1·easure unhesitatingly expended. T o ascertain what hidden treasures lie buried in the bowels of the land, and contribute our portion to the cause of science, liberal provision has been made, and we have the proud consciousness of knowing, th at with reference to the latter objects, we have taken the decided lead. The benefictal results of these wise measures, are already most sensibly felt. The spirit of commerce, which had begun to droop beneath the incubus of inactivity, 1s now buoya~t with reno vated life, and whitening every ocean with h er wings. The farn1er pursues his meritorious occupation, wit h the well founded assurn11ce of being amply r em unerate<l for his toil, and the industrious artiza ns of our towns and villages, partake largely of the general prosperity. In the midst of this reioicing, this ac t ual fruition of abundant causes of pr~sent gratulation, and prospects for the future most cheering to the hea r t of the philanthropist; it is our happiness to kn ow, that the hopes of the friends of St. Joh n's are once more reviviug. In addition to the recent bounty of the State, already adverted to, and the steps which ha ve been taken towards placing her in the footing of a State institution, a considerable accession of fu nds has been derived, from the voluntary contribution of i ndividuals. With the means thus acquired, the Ed ifice, the corner stone of which has just been laid, is to be erected. The object of the building is, to acco mm odate with board, students from a· distance, whose paren ts or guardians may wish to exclude them fro m the city. The want of such an appenda&'e to the College, has been Jong felt; and ~hen fimshed, we confidently hope, will infuse new vigour i_nto !ts r~vi ving energies. The appeal however which 1s berng made to the public liberality has been hut partially r esponded to. ' 23 T o place the institution upon the lofty ground, which i t deserves to occupy, to ena~le it to f~lfil the h opes of its friends, and to a~compl~sh the high J?Ur • poses of the patriotic generat10n which founded it, a far more generous supply of means is ~ndispeosab)y necessar y. That they will not be furlllshe~, we_w~ll not believe- Maryland can, and will maintain w1thm her bosom one high seminary of learn_ing, where her sons may drink freely, of those '.ountnrns _of trot~, of wisdom and of virtue, so essential tf) their happrness and pro'motive of her aggrandisement. _Why should not th e pu re and elevating lessons of ph~l?sophy, the profoun d recesses of science, the beaut~fu\ and cap tivating graces of Grecian and H.omart literature, be as effectually incukated, explored, and un_folde? here, as el sew here? The libel, that the ''gemu~ sickens, and the fancy dies" in A 111erica, has long srnce been ex ploded. The p1·oductions of our st~tesmeu, and our orators, our poets, and_ our men of ~cience, arc b0rne across the broad Atlantic, to be admired_, wond_ercd at, and imitated, by those who taunted us rn our _infancy. The profound argument, the deep discuss10n, th e clear perc eption of the duties of gover~m_ent,. the flashing wit, the withe:in_g sa:cnsm, the brilliant _ima• gination, which have d1st111gu1shed our c~ngress10nal debates, not only demonstr;lte that gemus does not languish in America, b~t that she has f?und new worshippers here, to krndle her _flames rnto a ret brigh ter effulgence. Wl~at _Ame_rican does not i~el h is bosom swell with patnot1c pn<le, when he hears the p raises of her sons wafted back from tlie shores of E urope? What has become now of th_c ~neer, '~w~o :-ea<l s an American hook?" Where, w1tl~m the hnnts of the wide world, are such accurate news of (?o· vern ment ente rtained? Where so pure a morality inculcated, and such rapid advances in ~II that ca~ adorn and elevate humanity, made, as m youth~ul America. The nations of Europe, though c~nturies pefore us in the order of time, :tre nearly distanced �26 24 in the race of prosperity. In reforming their political constitutions, in tearing down the cumbrous ma~hi~er~ of remote ages, and substituting in their place, I?stitutions better adapted to the progress of civilization. In ab0lishing complications which oppress, and supplying simplicity which relieves; in destroying de_spotism and establishing freedom, the example of this west_ern Republic is exerting a mighty ard most salutary influence. In all these important requisites of human. happiness, the space between us and them, can har~ly be measured by comparison. We are young, vigorous and free, full of present e;njoyment and radiant with hopes of the future. They old f~eble, and enslaved, Jiving under institutions cr:1mb~ hog be~eath the hand ~f time, and heaving to their foundat10ns under the billows of popular discontent. Th_e same shores which received the pilgrim fathers, flymg from shackles forged for their consciences, are now t~e. refuge ~o~ the oppressed of every clime. The victim of political m,urpation, he who is made to contribute from his scanty means to support a church whose creed carries no consolation to his bosom; th; !over ~f freedom, and _the slave of tyranny; the starv1ng Irish, and the exiled Pole, all seek and find an asyl?m on the shores of happy America. With these motives to warm our hearts with gratitude towards our creator, should we not strain every nerve tor the fulfilment of his holy precepts? And why should not on_e great Temple to learning be erected here on ~his spo~, associated as it is, with some of the :Uost rnterestrng events in our history? 'Twas here the father o[ his ~ountry resigned that sword, which had waved m trrnmph over the fields, on which the batt~es of inde_pendence ha~ been fought. 'Twas here he bade adieu to au~hor1ty, suppressing, if he ever felt them, the promptrngs of ambition, and presenting to the world a spectacle of sublimity, which never has been eqq.alled, and never can b~ excelled. If education is to be fostered in Maryland as its importance demands, no location more favo.rable for its cultivation could be selected than this. The building now existing,_ and th~t in the course of con• struction are seated m a plam of great extent and unrivalled beauty. The climate of the place is un• surpassed for salubrity, and whilst the moral co~taminntion incident to the vicinity of a large Town, 1s not to be dreaded, the presence of the seat of Government is full of advantages. Every thing conspires to render St. John's a favo• rite of the State. It was built up by the purchasers of our freedom, whilst the storms of the revoluti~n, were yet rocking the battlements of the Repuhhc. It has enrolled among its alumni some of the brightest ornaments of the nation, and continued its usefulness to the last, though frowned.upon a~d discouraged ~y the parent which cre~ted 1t. . It i~ endeared by its origin; venerable for Its age; 11lustr1ous for the great minds nurtured within it:i walls, and entitled to our gratitude for yet striving to do good. Let us then hope, as we do hope, that the days of its discouragement are past, and that from the walls now about to rise, a race of virtuous and enlightened men may he sent, who shall add new lustre to their country's glory, until the bright star of the Republic shall scatter the rays of liberty to the uttermost ends of the _Earth. No maxim is more universally admitted than that wealth and knowledge are mighty elements of power. That nation which is possessed of these, in the largest abundance, not onlyholds her own liberties impregnable to the _assaults of o~hers, but the fate of others is generally i!l her kee~rng._ Extensive territory, and a teeming popula~1~n if ~es• titute of these resources, so far from givmg vigor to a Government, invite aggression and encourage rapacity. Points accessible to attack are generally plUltiplied in proportion to territorial extent; and the dangers of internal dissentiou are increased by the ex:4 �26 istence of a dei,se, if unenlightened, populatio n. Iq every nation spre ad over a large exte nt of surface, thr.re must, by the unalterable laws of natu re, exis t geographical distinctions, whic h wisdom and patr iotism can alone appease. If these are wanting, not only 'Yill actual diversities of inter est impel to disunion, ~nd ensure weakqess, but inte rests only seemingly ~onflicting, will be ia:flamed by the designin g into irreconcilable differences. Wha t was it, but the sound good sense of thf' Ame rica n people, the love of coun try and jts laws, which result from understan ding thei r ~'Xce11ence, which saved these Unit ed Stat es ftom dismemberment, duri ng the rece nt violent poli ~gitations. It was said, and no doubt believed, tical by the pe~ple_ of ~n imp~ rtan t division of the coun try, that thei r r~ghts a~d mter ests were sacrificed to enri ch pthe r sections, less favored by natu re than them selves. The y were told that the bounties whic h Prov iden ce had showereq upon them with a prodigal libe ralit y, ~ere wr~sted from thei r enjoyment by a tyra nnic al ~ourse of legislation. Eve ry avenue by whic h the ~urnan hear t can be appr oach ed, was assa iled with maddening an~ soul stirr ing appeals. The ir thei r interei:;ts, thei r feelings of Stat e prid e, honor, the natural in~ignation of a gallant people at oppr essio n, ~ere all m turn addr esse d by the eloquent victims of ~ . fearful delus~~n. It is impossible to cont emp late with out shud deri ng, the consequences whic h mig ht have rei;µltetl fr~m th~se ~auses, if the peop le of these Unit ed Stat es haq not felt, and known, the value of pheir gove mme nt. The Halls of Congress would in vain hay~ rung wjth the eloquent voices of our unfiV!U~d oratorll. Tpe ir warnings, thei r invo cations, the~r deep s~ga~ity, thei r solemn adjuratio ns, and th!11' beseeching appeals, would have been all, all in yam, and the same fields on which Green and How ~r.d had fought for thei r coun try's inde pend pught have been crimsoned with American bloo ence , d shed ~y A~~ ri~a n han~s. ' 27 nd how is 1t that the English nation, for so many centuries, has maintained liel' ascendancy amo ng !he nations of Europe? Her terri tory and popu lation compared with many of them, ~ould, b~t for othe r causes plac e her far below them 1a the scale of grea tness. 'The se causes are, her superior weal th and knowledge. By thei r means: s~e has not on!y and maintained herself on a footing of equa pla~ed lity, w1t.h the most powerful of th_em all,_ but has been ~nal>le_d to interpose her prot ectrn g reg1~, to sa~~ them rn thei r extr eme st danger. The warlike spm t of ~ran_ce, blown into an intx ting uish able flame, by the whir lwm d of the Revolution, and guid ed and cont:entrated by the matchless genius of N~poleon, threatened the world with universal conquest. One _after a?~t her, nations of Euro pe yielded to his domuuon . ~he . I he Alps and the 1-yrene~s, presen~ed no _obstacle to the victorious march of his conquerrng leg10ns, and deat h and desolation follo\'Ved resistance to his will. Italy , the seat of th~ once prou d mistress of t_he_ wo:l d, Spain, unmindful of the glory which ?nee d1st1 ~gmshed her atnong the nations, Aust:ia, Prus ~ia, a?d Russia with theil· countlesg armies and imperial scep tr;s, had all quailed before the eagles of invincible Fran ce. In this full care er of conquest, however, ther e was one spot to which thei r victorivus pinions could neve r reach, and that was the land of our forefathers· that island anchored in the deep, who se wealth and whose knowledge bid defiance to thei r flight. Not only did she preserve_ her own sh?res, unprofaned by a hostile foot, thougo ever y nat10n of Euro pe, at one time, was leagued for her overthro w,. but I?ersevered in the struggle, until the star ot the victo r pale d before her bann er, and "the arbitP.r of othe rs' fates, became a supp liant for his ?Wn." _And thes e mig hty efforts were made, and this sple~d1d consummation accomplished, by the potent engrnes of wealth and knowledge, for ''no towers or bulwarks along the stee p," ever were deemed necessary to tht safety of England. �28 Whilst however, the power which reswlts from i!ea]th, ex_erts a treme~dous _influence upon the destmy of _nations, tha~ which arises from superior knowledge, .1~ far more hkely to ensure thei1· happiness and tranquility. The acquisition of the former not un• freq~ent1y brings with it, luxuries which vitiate the pubhc morals, and vices that contaminate the ver) sour~es of pub]i~ vir!ue; whilst the latter expels cor• ruphon, where 1t existed before, and purifies, as with :fire, the foulness which preceded it. In seeking therefore,. to better our condition, to promote ou: own happ~ness, and a~vance the power of the nation, let us not !n the pursuf~ of riches:, overlook the paramount ~la1ms of ed~cation; but rather, let us be doubly desirous to acquire th~ latter, that the vast energies of the former may be directed to better and holiel' purposes. SUBSCR iPTIONS MADS 1'0 THJ_,; FU N.U • The subscription mentioned in the prefatory re• marks, was made in three, equal, annual, instalments. It wa·s carried through the several counties on the Western Shore. and the amount obtained, was· ten thousand pounds. In 1821 , at a meeting of the Alumni, in the Senate Chamber, at Annapolis, a plan of subscription was drawn up, a condition being inserted that the whole should be void, unless the sum of ten thousand dollars should be obtained. Severa\ names were subscribed upon the spot, but no agent was appointed; the requisite sum was not obtained, and the subscrip• tion paper has been lost. The only record of it t~at remains, is the payment of the following sum, which was discharged by the donor, though not required to do so by the terms~ 8200. Isaac McKim, for the plan a exhibit s The following resolution in the now and 1834, in same object, undertake n courie of prosecution. Resolved, by the Visitors and Governors of St. John's College, that the Principal be authorised and requested to collect subscriptions, payable to the Visitors and Governors, to be applied by them, in the erection of suitable buildings, for the accommodation of students, and for improving and extending the Library and Philosophical Apparatus of the College, and that the Treasure r be authorised to pay to the Prinitipal, the expenses he may incur, in carrying ,to effect this resolution. Resolved, by the Visitors and Governors of St; John's College, that the Governor of this State, His Excellency JAMES THoMAs, and the Hon. BENJAMIN S. FoRREST, and the Hon. THOMAS WRIGHT, 3d. �31 members of this Board, be a committee to co-operate· with the Principal, in making all suitable preparations to carry into effect the resolution of the Board, to coUect subscriptions for the benefit of this institution: St. John's College, Feb. 15th, 1834. COPY OF THE SUBSCRIPTIO N. We, the subscribers, hereby agree to pay to the Visitors and Governors of St. John's College, at Annapolis, Maryland, or order, th'e sums of money opposite our names, respectively, in two equal instalments, to be applied in carrying into effect the foregoing resolutions: provided, however, that this subscription shall be void, unless at least ten thousand dollars shall be subscribed, as aforesaid; and on the completion o{ said subscription, the first instalment above mentioned, shall become due, and the other instalment, twelve months thereafter. Sept. 9, 1834. James Thomas; William Hughlett; Robe1·t W. Bowie, Wm. H. Marriott, ~lexancler C. Magruder, Henry Maynadier, H. H. Harwood, George Mackubin, Dennis Claude, Ramsay Waters, John Johnson, Nicholas Brewer, Jr. Alexander Randall, Thomas S. Alexander, George "\\'ells, Brice J. Worthington, Richard Harwood, of Thos. Richard I. Jones, Thomas Oliver, J. I. Cohen, Jr. Walter Farnandis, $500 ' 300 .250 250 •· 200 200' 200 200 20() .200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 lbO Hector Humphreys, Robert W. Kent, Dauiel Clarke, Gabriel Duvall, Fielder Cross, William D. Bowie, John H. Sothoron, William Reeder, Robert Ghiselin, Samuel Mayn11rd, Thomas Franklin, R. M. Chase, Thomas S. Culbreth, Hyde Ray, James Iglehart, Swann ~ Iglehart, George F. Worthington, George G. B~ewer, John B. Moms, Andrew McLaughlin, IJ.'homas B. Dorsey, William G. Tilghman, Charles Goldsborough, John C. Henry, Joseph E. Muse, Henry Page, G. C. Washington, Benjamin S. Forrest, J. Nevitt Steele, Allen Thomas, Charles W. Dorsey, R. G. Stockett, R. W. Dorsey, Larkin Dorsey, John C. Weems, Chas. S. W. Dorsey, Daniel !v.l urray, John H. Alexander, Gwinn Harris, N. F. Williams, '!'homas Sappington, Thomas Snowden, George Brown, F. S. Key, $100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 JOO 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 llJO 100 JOO JOO 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 �82 v·rga Maxcy, Joseph Todhunte r Thos. H. Carroll, , .Jonathan Ellicott & Sons, Francis Thomas, John S. Sellman, Robert H. Goldsborough E. 8. Winder, ' Andrew Skinner J:is. B. Steele ' Brice J. Gold;borough Thomas Hayward ' William W. Eccle~ton Chas. J. Kilgour, ' J. H. W ilkiuson 'l'humas E. Sudl~r J. Hughes, ' R. I. Cowman, John Randall, George McNeir Basil Shephard ,, R..J. Crabb, Thomas Duckett, Jo~n. H. Waring, W Ilham Ghiselin J. G. Chapman, ' Leonard Iglehart, Wm. D. Merrick, Charles H. Steele Wm. T. Goldsbo:ough H. W. Evans, ' Nathan R. Smith Daniel Randall 2 James Wilson ' David Baruum' James Carroll J' Wm. Denny, R. Potts, John Tyler, Benry K, Randall Thomas J. Dorse'tt John Iglehart, , A~n Iglehart, ft1chard Marriott, 33 $100 100 100 100 100 100 50 bO 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 pO 50 60 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 The names of future subscribers will be embraced in the next Annual Report of the College, to the Legislature, It is proposed to collect at least thirty thousand dollars, for the above objects. The present buildings, when completed, will be insufficient for the purposes of the College. The old building contains all the necessary public rooms for such an establishment, being 80 feet in length, by 60 feet in width, and three stories high, above the basement. But a separate building is required, for the exclusive accommodation of the GRAMMA R ScnooL. And, should the number of students increase, according to present prospects, a third CoLLEGE EDIFICE will J)ecome necessary, at no distant period. tiO 50 s �BOA RD OF VISI TOR S AND GOV ERN O,!IS OF ST. JOH N'S CO LLE GE . His Excellency JAME S THOM AS, ex-officio Presid ent. Hon. ,, JOHN BUCHANAN. JOHN STEP HEN . " STEV ENSO N ARCH ER. " THOMAS B. DORSEY. " EZEK IEL F. CHAM BERS . " C. ASA SPEN CE. " THEODORIC IlLAND. " JOHN G. CHAPMAN. " WILLIAM J . .BLAKISTONE. " JOSE PH KEN T. " RO.BERT W. BOW IE. ALEX AND ER C. MAG RUD ER, Esq. SAM UEL RIDOUT, Esq. JAME S .BOYLE, Esq. NICHOLAS BREW ER, Esq. HEN RY MAY NAD IER, Esq. WILL IAM H. MAR RIOT T, Esq. THO. MASH . CARROLL, Esq. THOMAS S. ALEX AND ER, Esq. JOHN N. WAT KINS , Esq. THO.MAS FRAN KLIN , Esq. RAM SAY WAT ERS, Esq. DR. DENN IS CLAU DE, Esq. NICHOLAS BREW ER, JR. Eiq. JERE MIAH HUG HES, Esq. GIDEON WHI TE, Esq. ALEX AND ER RAN DALL , Esq. JOSE PH H. NICHOLSON, Esq. JOHN JOHNSON, Esq. TRE ASU RER , GEOR GE ~1ACKUBIN, Esq. SECR ETAR Y. GEOR GE WELLS, E;11. FA CU LT Y. Rev. HEC TOR HUMPHREYS, D. D., PRESIDENT AND PROFESSOR OF MORAL SCIEN CE. JULIUS T. DUCATEL, M. D., PROFE SSOR OF CHEM ISTRY , JIIINER ALOGY , AND GEOLO GY. EDW ARD SP ARKS, 1\1. D., PROFE SSOR OF .ANCIE NT LANGU AGES, THOMAS E. SUDLER, A. .M., :ilRO.F.ESiOR OF IIIATH EMAT ICS AND CIVIL ESGIN EERfl' \'O. WILLIAM B. LEAR Y, A. M., PROFE SSOR OF GRAlll MAR. CHA RLES T. FLUSSER, Esq., PROFE SSOR OF .l\ICIDE RN LANG UAGE S. �37 JUNIO R CLASS RESIDEN CE, NAMES, CATAL OGUE OF THE STUDE N1'S OF ST. JOHN 'S COLL EGE. 1835. • George B. Dunkel, John Buchanan Hall, John W. Martin, Joseph Trapnell, Trueman Tyler, • CLASS GRADUATED, FEBRUARY 21st, 1835. NAlllES. RESIDEN CE, THOMAS HOLME HAGNER, A. B. ABRAM CLAUDE, A. B. EDWIN BOYLE, A. B. RICH.A.RD SMtTH CULBRETH, A. B. RICHARD CREAGH MACKUBIN, A. B. RICHARD WEEMS, English Diploma, Washington City. .llnnapolis. .llnnapolis, Caroline County. .llnnapolis. .llnne Jlrundel Co, • SENIO R CLASS . NAlllES. Thomas Granger, George Grundy , William R. Hayward, Joshua D. Johnson George F. Johnson', George Edward Musa, William I. Reder John H. Reeder ' ' . Henry W. Thomas Franklin Weems ' gton, Nicholas B. Worthin St. J\fary's County, Charles County. Baltimore City. Washington County. Cambridge, Frederick. Prince George's County . John M. Bt·ome, Frederic k S. Brown, SOPHO MORE CLASS . RESIDEN CE. NAMES, William Tell Claude, Marius Duvall, Jlnnapolis. Do lJavid Edgar, Thomas Iglehart, Charles N. Mackuhin, Jlnne Jlrimdel Comity. Baltimore City. .flnnapolis. Do Baltimore County. William C. Thompson, Edward Worthington, • RESIDEN CE. FRESH MAN CLASS. Queen .llnne's County. Baltimo re City. Cambri.dge Frederick. .fl,mapolis, Cambridge. Baltimore City. no St. Mctry's County. Ellcridge. .llnne .flrundel County, NAMJ,:S, RESIDEN CE. .llrmapolis. John M. Brewer, Do Philip Culbreth, . Elkridge Cale Iii Dorsey, Do "William H. G. Dorsey, Do John Thomas B. Dor11ey, .llnnapolis. John W. Duval!, Calt•ert County. Thomas C. Gantt, Somerset County. Benjamin Gray, �38 39 Reverdy Ghisclin, Jeremiah L. Hughes, Richard II ughl ett, Thomas R. Kent, Absa'om Ridgely, William C, Tuck, Prince George's County. .!lrmapolis. Talbot County. .!Jnne .!lrnndel County, .linnapolis, Brice J. Worthington, .!lnne .llrundel County. Do B. Thos. B. W orthin 0o-ton. D<J • PARTIAL STUDENTS. NAMES, R E SIDE N CE. WiJli11m R. Goodman Edwin E. Pratt, .llnnapolis. Queen Jlnne's County. .llnne .llrundet County, ' Samuel Ridout, • STUDENTS IN THE NAJIIES. GRAMMAR SCHOOL. RESIDENCE, George Barrott, John Basil, Robert Bowie, Lewellin Boyle, Jeremiah T. Chase J0hn Clayton, 1-lenry Duvall, ' Richard R. Gaither , Alexander H. Gambrill Benjamin H. Hall, Dennis D. Hart Benjamin Harwood, George S. Ilumphrevs, John T. E. Hyde, ' Washingto,1 City. Jlnnapolis. Prince George's County, .linnapc,l is. Do Do Do Do Do Jlnne .lirundel County. .!lnnapolis. Jlnne .lirundtl Count y, .IJ,mcipolis . Do Edward G, Maynard, Walter McNeir, George McNeir, Amiapolis. Do Nicholas Holland, James McNeir, Washington City. Annapolis, George Miller, Edward C. Mills, Thomas McParlin, Henry M. Murray, Horatio S. Ridout, Samuel Ricrout, Richard Ridgely, Allred G. Ridgely, William Ridgely, Richard H. Schwarar, Francis H. Stockett, John T. Taylor, ;)ennis C. Thompson, James C Welch, Do Do Jlnne .flrundel County. Jlnnapol is. Do Jlnne Jlrundel County, Jlnnapolis. Do Do Do Do Anne .llrundel County. .finnapolis. Do Levin Winder, James M. Winder, Charles F. Worthington, Do Easton. Do .finne .11.rundel County; Nathan Moore, John G, Gamble, Baltimore City. Weelaunee, Florida. ~dam Smith, Allan Quynn, Baltimore City. .finnapolis. �41 SOPHOMORE CLA.SS. FIRST TERM, f0.URSE ~F STUDIES, EXPENSBS, &c! Juvenal, ( Leverett's.) Homer'& Iii ad, (Robinson's.} Plane Geometry, (Legendre's.) SECOND TERM, Pl:tEPARATORY STU;DIES, VIZ: ;English G:rammar; Geography; Arithmetick; Latin Gram'Q ~ar; C?rderms~ lEsop's Fables; Eras ,, us; C~sar's Com~ men~anes, '!r _Sallu~t; Eclogues, and first six books of th~ 1En_e1d, of V1rg1l; Cicero's Orations; Mair's Introduction, or L aun Tutor; Greek Grammar; Greek Delectus; and Jacob's Greek Reader, and Prosody. • Pupils not intending to enter College will als b • t h E 1· h ' , o e rece1v• e d m o t e , ng 1~ Departm~nt, and will pursue such ·t ~ranches of Education, embraced in the course as Jheir particular views. ' ' iµay sui Cicero de Oratore, or Quintilian. Grreca Majora, (Odyssey and Hesiod.) Solid Geometry, (Legendre's.) THIRD TERM. Rhetorick and Belles Lettres.-(Whateley.) Grreca Majora.-(Tragedians.) Logarithms; Plane and Spherical Trigonometry: Exercises in original Compositidn and Elocution, during the year. • JUNIOR CLASS. P O ~ L E G I ~ 'I' E COU R s E . FRESHMAN CLAS$. · FIRST .T ERM. ,olsom's Livy. Prreca Majora-(Xenophon Herodotus Thucyd' d J preek and Roman 'Antiquiti;s, History, ~nd Myth~l!;y. SECOND TERM. 1Jorace, (~des.) 'firgil's Georgicks. 1rreca MaJ?ra, (Lysias, Demosthenes Isocrates ) _ gebra, with Arithmetic revised. ' • • FIRST TERM, Grreca Majora. (Minor Poets.) Applications of Trigonometry to the Mensuration of Heights . and Distances, Navigation, Surveying, Levelling, 4-'c. Moral Philosophy. Abercrombie's Intellectual Powers. SECOND TERM , Tacitus.-(History.) Conick Sections. Chemistry, with Lectures. (Turner's.) G , A TH!RD TEJ.UI. Hora~,,, (Satires and Epistles.) GAlrreca ~ajora, (Xenophon's Memorabilia Plato ) gebra completed. ' • raus!at!ons, Them~s, and Declamations du~ing the y~ar,. 'f THIRD TERM. Tacitus-(Manners of the Germans, and Life of Agricola.) Natural Philosophy, with Lectures. (Olmsted's:) Elements of Criticism, with Lectures on the Frne Arts.. (Karnes') Debates, Compositions, and Declamations, during the year• 6 �42 43 SENIOR CLASS. EXPENSE S. FIRST TERM. Natural l?hilosophy, finished, with Lectures. (Olmsted's.) Horace, De Arte Poetica; with Lecturns on Taste, and a Revision of Latin. J,qgic, and Philosophy of the Mind. (Whateley's.) SECOND TERM. Astronomy-wi th Lectures. (Cambridge.) Political Economy-with Lectures. (Say's.) ~vidences of Christianity and Natural Theology. (Paley's.) THIRD TERM. Laws of Natwns-Consti tution, and Civil and PDlitical History ot the United States. (Kent.) Butter's Analogy. Civil Engineering-(c onstruction of Machines, Bridges, Roads, Canals, &c.) Mineralogy and Geology. (Shepard's.) ))ec:amat1ons of Original Pieces, Extemporaneou s Debates, • and Exercises in Criticism, during the year. The study of the Modern Languages, shall be so arranged ~snot materially to interfere with the College course. The officers of instruction, will endeavor to make the horough as possible; and in no case will course of study as t_ a Scholar be allowed to pass, to an advanced standin"', till he _shall _have sustained all the previous examinations, to the ~atisfasllon of the Faculty. Full Courses of Lectures are delivered to th€' classes on (;hemistry, Mineralogy and Geology, and on Natural Philosophy and Astronomy. . The State Cabinet of Minerals, collected by the Geolo~ gist of Mary Ian~, is deposited in the College, anJ may be us~d, together with the College Cabinet, which ot !!self is quite respectable, in illustrating the Lectures on Miner.1logy ~nd ~eology. The College Bills are payable quarterly, in advance, as ol lows, viz: $24 per annum. English Department, do. 40 do. Preparatory Classes, do. Freshman and Sophomore Classes, 40 do, do. 50 do. Senior and Junior Classes, The above Bills include all extras. No Commons are established; but board may be had in . private families, for $120 per annum. Parents and Guardians are requested to place all momes intended for the use of the students, in the hand~ of ~ne ?f th p ofessors who will exercise a parental discret10n, 10 th:ir ~isburse~1ent; and lhe following ~aw o~ the ~late, passed December session, 1834, is published for the rntor• mation of all persons concerned. Section 1. Be it enacted by the General .lissembly of .Jl,faryland, That no person or persobn~ shall ~'!Ve cre?htt tot atnhy e Student of St. John's College, emg a mrn~r, wit ou consent, in writing, of his Parent or Guarclian, or ?f such Officer or Officers of the College, as may be authorised by the government thereof, to act in such cases, except for . ,, washing or medical aid, Sec. 2. .find be it enacted, I hat if any_ person or person$ shall give credit to any minor as afotesa1d, c~ntrary to the provisions of this act, he or they shall fo~fe1t and pay to the Treasurer of the H' estern Shore of this State, a sum not Jess than tv,enty, nor more than three hundre~ doll~rs, according to the nature of the offence, and at tl!e d1scret1on of the Court of Anoe Arundel Countr, which may be recovered in any proper nction, before said Court. Sec. 3. .!lnd be it enacted, That it s~all be the duty of the Attorney General of this State, or _his Deputy, on the complaint of any of the Officers aforesaid, to prosecute for all violations of this act. ��� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Speeches, presentations, and other lectures Description An account of the resource Speeches, presentations, and other lectures given at St. John's College. These include convocation addresses delivered in both Annapolis, MD and Santa Fe, NM.<br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Speeches, presentations, and other lectures" href="http://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=15">Items in the Speeches, presentations, and other lectures Collection</a></strong> to <span>view and sort all items in the collection.</span> Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context speechespresentationsotherlectures Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource An Account of the Ceremony of Laying the Corner Stone of the New Building, at St. John's College, Performed by the Hon. John Stephen, Judge of the Court of Appeals, with an Address Delivered on the Occasion, by John Johnson, Esq., One of the Visitors and Governors, June 18th, 1835, with a Historical Notice of the Institution, a Catalogue of the Officers and Students, and a Copy of the Subscriptions Made to the Funds Description An account of the resource An Account of the Ceremony of Laying the Corner Stone of the New Building, at St. John's College, Performed by the Hon. John Stephen, Judge of the Court of Appeals, with an Address Delivered on the Occasion, by John Johnson, Esq., One of the Visitors and Governors, June 18th, 1835, with a Historical Notice of the Institution, a Catalogue of the Officers and Students, and a Copy of the Subscriptions Made to the Funds. The pamphlet was published by the Board of Trustees and printed by Jeremiah Hughes. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1835 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College owns the rights to this publication. Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource Cornerstone laying College trustees College students Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context LD_4811_A249_S14 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Stephen, John, -1844 Johnson, John, 1798-1856 Humphreys Hall https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/04be00ccb2c249ddf71040dad58d2320.pdf 6326f830d605aa03fd1d5b7fafddb5e5 PDF Text Text Being a Book I A book is a small, hard, rectangular object, whose pages are bound along one edge into fixed covers and numbered consecutively. This description of a book is not mine. I borrow it from a lecture by tutor Eva Brann, who borrowed it from an essay by the novelist Paul Scott, who borrowed it from a talk on the BBC.1 It is better borrowed, I think, than improved upon, at least in clarity. Once Scott is done with it, this hard rectangular object has become “a canvass that doesn’t exist.” In other words, “a formless, almost indefinable area of consciousness.” In still other words, “the area of contact for the meeting of minds, the clash, the confrontation of wills and visions, and of physical and intellectual impressions of reality—the writer’s and the reader’s.”2 Miss Brann is briefer but no less extravagant about the book’s metamorphosis. In her words it becomes “a special kind of body made to be inhabited by a curious kind of frozen but fusible soul, a body fit to mediate its own peculiar life.”3 I will not attempt my own metaphysics of a book tonight. But I do want to ask why a book admits of metaphysics, and perhaps even requires it. What makes the being of a book elusive when the book itself is so easy to grasp? We can pull one off a shelf, as if it belonged to the furniture of the world; yet when we open it up and begin to read we are carried somewhere else, as if the book were otherworldly. In one sense it may have remained a small, hard, rectangular object, with pages bound into covers and numbered consecutively. But all this has vanished in another sense. And what has taken its place, as the book being held is now being read, is difficult to describe. Nor is this the only difficulty. Consider what becomes of the book being read if read, say, for seminar. Just before the seminar begins there seem to be many books on the table. Yet once the opening question is asked it is as if there is only 1 Scott’s borrowing of the description appears in “The Architecture of the Arts: The Novel (1967)” in My Appointment with the Muse: Essays, 1961–75, ed. Shelly C. Reese (Heinemann: London, 1986), 78. Scott credits the description to Bernard Bergonzi. Brann’s borrowing appears in “What is a Book?” St. John’s Review XLI, no. 1 (1991–2): 78. (Note: the Review sources this to a lecture given in September 1991, but a reprint of the lecture itself dates it August 30 of that year.) A version of it is also currently available on the website of the Imaginative Conservative. 2 Scott, 80 3 Brann, 88. 1 �one book on the table. And in the conversation that follows, with a movement of its own that yet involves the text, perhaps the very idea of a book on the table is best given up. But given up for what? What happens to a book at this college every Monday and Thursday night? Behind this question I have both a hunch and a hypothesis. The hunch is that St. John’s is less committed to books, even the greatest books, than to the being of a book—any book. Put a different way: there is no Canon of Great Books at the College that we read each in turn; there is only the book in front of us, whatever it may be and wherever it may lead. I will come back to this hunch later in the lecture. But I begin with the hypothesis: The being of a book becomes elusive once the book contains words and in some sense is composed of them. I say “in some sense” because how words compose a book will become the question of the lecture. But that there are words in a book at all seems already a source of elusiveness. If we could erase its words, making the book blank, then it might be but a kind of rectangle. We could count the number of books in seminar the way we might count the number of chairs and leave it at that. The trouble starts when the words go unerased: the book’s pages left full of print, giving a reader something to do. Even the words on its cover, announcing the title and author, are enough to complicate what a book is. No longer just a book, it is now the copy of a book, in something like the way the chairs in seminar are copies of a model. We are all sitting in a Johnnie chair, with Homer’s Iliad in front of us, even before the opening question is asked. Yet it would seem strange to say we were all sitting in the same Johnnie chair, as if there were only one chair in the room. So why is it not so strange to say we all have Homer’s Iliad in front of us, as if there were only one book in the room? Especially once the opening question is asked and more words from inside the book are read out loud? The answer, again, seems to be the words, making one book out of every copy in the room. And at least this much happens to a book every seminar night: a rectangle made of pages becomes a more elusive thing made of words. II How elusive is exemplified by the Iliad. Once upon a time the work existed only in song, and was first written down not in pages but on a scroll. In ironic recollection of this perhaps some of us prepared for seminar using an e-book or audiobook on the sly, getting through the work without turning a single actual page. 2 �Then there is the question of translation. All of us, even tutors, likely read the Iliad for seminar in translation. The copies in the seminar room are mostly translations, each made of its own words throughout. In one the Iliad begins: “Sing, goddess, the anger of Peleus’ son Achilleus and its devastation. . . .” In another: “Rage—Goddess, sing the rage of Peleus’ son Achilles, murderous, doomed. . . .” In still another: “Goddess, sing of the cataclysmic wrath of Peleus’ son Achilles. . . .”4 These three beginnings, three of many, proceed word-by-word to their respective ends; yet they are all taken up in our conversation about the Iliad as if they were the Iliad. But what in that case is the Iliad? Or any book in translation? It would seem to be certain words in a certain order, without having to be only these words in this order. The same book might be made of different words in a different order. But how? How can a book be made of words in more than one way? Perhaps we should insist, against this question, that translations of a book are merely translations. They are translations, that is, of some original text, composed of those words in that order. The first word of Homer’s Iliad, then, is not “sing” or “rage” or “Goddess,” nor indeed any word in English, no matter how well-chosen. The first word is μῆνιν, as we learn soon enough in the language tutorial. We also likely learn how some translations of a text are more literal than others—translations that sound like translations—and even learn to prefer them when the language of the original is out of reach. A good translation puts the original in reach, which is a different thing from replacing it. And translations, then, can be made of words in many ways, but the original only in one. Even so, is this original what we mean, what we ought to mean, by the book? Or can a book still exist, and even thrive, in translation? The question put this way can sound almost rhetorical, as if books flourished in translation as a matter of course—across our Program’s reading list. Where would we be if the translation of a book could never become the book? And in calling it a “translation” we distinguish it not simply from some original text, but from any paraphrase of that text. We distinguish it, that is, from any series of words merely about the text. The series we deem a translation, even if it differs from the text, has somehow become the text. Or at least become as close to the text, as joined to the text, as “at one” with the text, as words that differ from the text allow. In translations, then, we confront just how elusive the being of a book can be. We also encounter one way—to recall my hunch—that St. John’s is committed to 4 The first is from the Lattimore translation, the second from the Fagles, and the third from the recent Emily Wilson translation. 3 �this being, in its commitment to translations as books. Our copy of the Iliad can have the name of a translator on its cover; yet the author, we believe, remains Homer. The word “μῆνιν” can be replaced by “sing”; yet the book, we believe, is still Homer’s Iliad rather than becoming Lattimore’s. A book, so our Program claims, can be made of words in many ways, even if first made in one. The word “first” in this formulation could also be questioned if we take a different view of good translations. On this view, translations should not sound like translations, lest they put the original forever out of reach. For the original presumably sounds original. Not that we could know what words in what order would compose the Iliad, say, in English, if this were Homer’s native tongue. But we could guess, I think, that this Iliad would not sound like a literal translation from the Greek. And this suggests that good translations sound original. If so, then it seems a book can be made of words in many ways, where every such way is like the first. III Yet even this much elusiveness in a book can seem a special matter of translation. Consider the seminar night in several weeks, just after spring vacation, when juniors will walk in the room and put their copies of Jane Austen on the table. It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife. These words in this order will begin the book in every copy, followed by the same words in the same order until the end. What could be elusive about that? The pagination might differ from copy to copy, but there seems nothing to trouble us in the words. And the words are enough to make every copy identical. In this case, where none of the copies are translations, it seems that a book is made of words in only one way. But I think we can question even this. We can ask how a book is made of words even in one way, given something that just happened in my lecture. I quoted the first sentence of Pride and Prejudice. The quotation, too, is made of those words in that order. So what is the one way the sentence in the book is made of them? Or if this sentence depends on the rest of the book, let the quotation be as long as the book, made of all those words in just that order. What is the one way the book is made of them, to distinguish it from its quotation? Why is a quotation of the book not the book? 4 �There are two reasons, I think, to consider this question more significant than it might seem at first. One harks back to my hunch about St. John’s, and its commitment to the being of a book. The commitment, in this context, is to the way that any book escapes its own quotation. For where would we be if the quotation of a book could ever become the book? For us, the difference between unquoted words and quoted ones is the difference between the texts we read and the texts we don’t. In the latter texts—call them secondary texts—the books we might read are merely quoted. So read them we do, to see for ourselves what they say. For us, therefore, the quotation of a book is definitively not the book. Yet why this is so is also hard to say—a second reason to think the question significant. The question even becomes paradoxical if we frame it in light of our commitment to books in translation. For what is it about a book that allows it to become its translation but never its quotation? What prevents the book from being made of the same words in the same order, if it can be made of different words in a different order? To make this question easier on myself, I revert to the form it took at first: why is a quotation of the book not the book? Even in this form I find the question hard to answer; I make three attempts in the rest of this lecture before giving up. Attempt number one. A quotation of the book is not the book because the words in the quotation are borrowed from the book, while the words of the book belong to it. So much do they belong that if words are taken from the book without quotation we consider it an act of theft. This is another way we credit the book with being original: a source for the quotation like the source for any translation. Yet unlike translations, and the way they can seem original, quotations seem derivative. Quotation marks announce as much, as do the other ways we have— like indentation—to frame the quotation as derivative. Erase the frame and let the words go unquoted; it is now as if we have a copy of the text itself. And perhaps in this we find the one way a book is made of its words. The words can go unquoted in the book because they are original to the book. They have their origin in the book. They come from the book. But something in this answer has gone awry. For how can words come from a book if it is made of them, and therefore comes from them? The words in a book must come from somewhere else if the book is to be made at all. And in one respect this somewhere else is prosaic. A book is made of words that separately come from the dictionary and together from the rules of grammar. In another 5 �respect—at least for books that transcend the prosaic—the somewhere else is a mystery. If we believe the first line of the Iliad, the words in such books come from a goddess—and only after pleading. Even the greatest book has to beg for its words when none are good enough to borrow or steal. To seem original is to be inspired. And while it might take a muse to write such a book, to print the book only takes a typesetter. The somewhere else in this direction is less a mystery and more a certainty. A series of words becomes a sequence of symbols: the letters of the alphabet and a handful of punctuation marks. What is possible in a book is thus reduced from something uncountable in words to thirty symbols or so. And this reduction effectively determines what the book can be in advance. If we count the symbols, assigning to each a different number, we have a way of counting their sequence in the book; and can translate the book into a number. There is no printable book that is not, in this sense, already a number. And one of them is a copy of Pride and Prejudice. So while in another direction its words come from who knows where, in this direction its words come from a counting number. There is nothing original left for the book to be, despite how it seems. But what then explains how it seems? The quotation of a book still looks made of borrowed words and the book made of words that belong. And this sense of belonging, again, is especially strong at St. John’s. Let the words in all our books come from somewhere else; they still go into the books unquoted, as if there the words had found their home, and could only pay visits to other books in quotation. In this sense, we might say that the quotation of a book always belongs to a different book. But why? Or again: what makes the quotation of a book not the book? Here is my second attempt to answer the question. If we read a book to see for ourselves what it says, perhaps what it says can never be quoted. There is another use of quotation to suggest as much. To begin with a simple example, compare the following sentences: 1. Annapolis is the capital of Maryland. 2. Annapolis is nine letters long. In the second sentence, a copy-editor would want me to put quotation marks around “Annapolis,” 2. “Annapolis” is nine letters long, 6 �to distinguish the name of the city, which is nine letters long, from the city, which is not nine letters long. But quoting a word, in that case, is not a way of saying the word; it is rather a way to speak of the word. This use of quotation is not limited to single words. We can, for example, put all the words from the first sentence between quotation marks, “Annapolis is the capital of Maryland” and now speak of the sentence rather than say it. Since the sentence is six words long, we can say that of it: 3. “Annapolis is the capital of Maryland” is six words long. Or in a less contrived example, I might speak of the sentence as something that amused me when I heard one of my daughters say it: 4. “Annapolis is the capital of Maryland,” my five-year old explained, as if she were a tour-guide during our walk downtown. Or to move from the invented to the actual in a last example, consider the first use of quotation in Pride and Prejudice: 5. “My dear Mr. Bennet,” said his lady to him one day, “have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?” Mr. Bennet replied that he had not. Austen quotes the question but not the reply, artfully turning the reply into a kind of comment on the question, leaving the impression of a knowing husband and unknowing wife. None of these examples involves the quotation of one text in another text, but the abstraction from speech in textual quotation is arguably the same. The quoted words are never said, only spoken of. Perhaps the clearest example of the effect at St. John’s is in a seminar paper too full of quotations. The quoted passages start to look like filler, saying nothing, even when the unquoted passages are central to the book, saying everything. Another example of the effect is in the typical Friday Night lecture that includes quotations. It is tempting to put the quotations on a handout, or even on a screen—as if a quotation were meant to be seen rather than said. In light of this account, we can revisit Pride and Prejudice and distinguish the book from its quotation definitively. Consider the first sentence again. 7 �It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife. In the book, those words in that order are not just a sentence but an utterance. In quotation, however, the sentence is separated from the utterance, allowing us to carry the sentence out of the book. There is no difference, then, between quoting the first sentence and calling it the first sentence: in neither case is the sentence said; it is only spoken of. Similarly, there is no difference between quoting every sentence in the book and calling the book by its title: the title is another way, if briefer way, to speak of every sentence in turn. Only in the book is every sentence in turn not spoken of but said, in an act of narration rather than quotation. We can generalize this difference to encompass any book. The quotation of a book is not the book in the same way the title of a book is not the book. In both, the book has yet to speak. This is why we have to read the book to see what it says. This is also why a book can become its translation but never its quotation. The one way a book is made of its words is in being made of words that can speak. These might become different words that can speak—the goal of any good translation—but quotation renders the words speechless. Yet something in this answer too has gone awry. For one thing, it is hard not to read quoted words as spoken words, especially in a narrative like the novel. Consider again the first use of quotation from Pride and Prejudice, but lengthened to include the quoted words of Mr. Bennet—as if he were finally forced to speak in reply to his importunate wife: “My dear Mr. Bennet,” said his lady to him one day, “have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?” Mr. Bennet replied that he had not. “But it is,” returned she; “for Mrs. Long has just been here, and she told me all about it.” Mr. Bennet made no answer. “Do not you want to know who has taken it?” cried his wife, impatiently. “You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it.” This was invitation enough. Not only do the quoted words seem to speak, they seem to speak in the voices of Mr. and Mrs. Bennet. It is as if quotation made speech possible in a written text. 8 �This is underlined by the final line of narration—“this was invitation enough.” For this is an invitation to speak but in the form of quotation: wife replying to husband as husband has replied to wife. To speak in reply, moreover, is to speak of what was said. At least in conversation, then, to speak of what was said is not an abstraction from speech; it is a condition of speech. The abstraction from speech in this example rather lies in the unquoted words of narration. For in what sense is the narrator invited to speak? Who is the narrator, and where, to speak of what either spouse has said? At what place or time, for that matter, and by whom, are the unquoted words in a book ever said? It seems they need no speaker to say them; they need only be written down and read. But in that case perhaps the unquoted words in a book are never said. A book would then be made of words that can never speak, in being liberated, once inside the book, from every circumstance of speech. Consider, too, how if the words in a book could speak—literally speak—there would be no point in learning to read. Every book would be an audiobook as soon as we opened it. It is because the opened book is silent that reading becomes a need. And learning it, for most of us, is not like learning to speak. The task is difficult enough to need schooling and important enough to seem liberating. In these respects, learning to read is arguably the first form a liberal education takes. It may even be the only form, if a liberal education is made of books. But books, in turn, are made of words that have to be read to be heard. In this sense, at least, a book does seem made of unspoken words. We might identify these words with the silence on the St. John’s campus as a seminar book is being read, before it can be discussed. In discussion, by contrast, the book is not read but quoted. This again suggests something gone awry, even backwards, in my second attempt to distinguish quotation from book. For quotation now looks like a kind of speech, leaving the book in a kind of silence. But what kind of silence? And distinguished from what kind of speech? Or again: what makes the quotation of a book not the book? We come to my third attempt to answer the question. This time I return to where I began the lecture: A book is a small, hard, rectangular object, whose pages are bound along one edge into fixed covers and numbered consecutively. Words go unmentioned in this description of a book, as if it were blank. Yet the book is not blank: its pages are numbered consecutively. It is as if a book were 9 �made of numbers rather than words. But is it not made of words—my hypothesis all along? Perhaps not. Consider what a book can become in the act of quotation: “Reason is, and ought only to be, the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them.” Mr. Harrell, where are you quoting from? Oh. This is Hume. His Treatise. Page 266. Mr. Harrell, I don’t have your edition. Oh. Let’s see. I’m quoting from Book 2, Part 3, Section 3; the secondto-last sentence of paragraph . . . 4. Something like this happens every time we quote from a book in seminar. We take words out of the book to form the quotation, and what is left in the book is their location. In this sense, a book does seem made of numbers. The quotation, in turn, is not made of numbers. It is made of only words—the words that quotation has dislocated from the book. Could this be why the quotation of a book is not the book? The quotation is made of words, while the book is made of numbers. This answer to the question is more plausible, I think, than it might sound at first. For one thing, it makes sense of a book’s silence, in the unspoken but countable order of its words. For another thing, reading is arguably an act of counting. What else explains the puzzling thing that happens in every seminar? Sooner or later someone will read words from the book out loud. And while the rest of us could just look up and listen, many of us do not. We try to find the words in the book and read them for ourselves, even as they are being read to us by someone else. And the numbers in a book get us only so far. Page 266; or for those with a different edition: Book 2, Part 3, Section 3, Paragraph 4—the numbers allow us to reach the page of the words, even the paragraph. But to get any closer, we have to stop counting by number and start counting by letter. Yet what is counting by letter but reading the words the letters form? And once we reach the words being quoted, counting by letter means reading those words for ourselves. A book would then be made of numbers even when made of words. Could this be the one way a book is made of its words? It is made of words we count—those words in that order, from a first word to a last. As much as I like this answer, it too arguably goes awry by having lost the plot. True, the letters printed in a book may come in countable order to form the words, just as the words come in countable order to form the sentences; as 10 �do the sentences to form the paragraphs, the sections, the chapters—and finally, the book. Nonetheless, when we read all those words in just that order, it is not to count them but to understand them. Or at least try to understand them; for it is possible not to understand them, or to misunderstand them, prompting us to read them again. But we read them again to understand them better. We even have a word—interpretation—for the act of understanding that reading involves. The two are so close that “reading” has become almost a synonym for “interpretation.” In this sense, reading a book elicits a reading of the book. And reading a book at St. John’s means having a reading of the book to talk about. Or even readings, plural—the one way, perhaps, there remain many books on the seminar table. Here is how we put it in our Statement of the Program: The books speak to us in more than one way. In raising the persisting questions, they lend themselves to different interpretations that reveal a variety of independent yet complementary meanings.5 Notice too, on this account, how the books are able to speak. A speaking book, even if we take it metaphorically, suggests something else gone awry in my answer, where it was the quotation that speaks, leaving the book in a kind of silence. But is there any difference between silence and speech when it comes to understanding the book? Those words in that order remain the same, written or spoken. And our understanding of them might well be improved if someone else is doing the reading, allowing us to close the book and truly listen to what it says. What else explains why we call the audiobook a book, and even use it to get our seminar readings done? Or how we fell in love with certain books as children, even before we learned to read? But where does this leave us, then, with the book’s quotation? Perhaps it is not really different from the book, after all. At least if by “quotation,” we mean anything in the book that can be read out loud, and more or less understood. Let our act of quotation remove all of this from the book. What is left for the book to be? Perhaps nothing. IV Even if there were something, I am not, given the time, about to make a fourth attempt to distinguish the quotation of a book from the book. It is also true that 5 Statement of the St. John’s College Program, 2. The current statement is available on the St. John’s College website. 11 �the quotation of a book, like its translation, can seem like a special case. What could be elusive about a book if we leave it unquoted, as well as untranslated? Think again of those copies of Jane Austen that juniors will put on their seminar table in several weeks, every copy having the same words in the same order. In this identity, it seems we can tell the one way a book is made of its words, from a first word to a last, before this way gets obscured by the book’s translation or quotation. Even so, there is also the book’s interpretation, which is not a special case. It happens as soon as we read the book, and make any sense of what it says. And we can ask what reading does to the book. In one sense, clearly nothing; the words remain unchanged. This is why we can predict that every copy of Austen will be identical, and why we can call it a copy of Austen, as if the words of Pride and Prejudice belonged to the writer of the book. But in another sense, reading the book does something to it—something so radical that Pride and Prejudice will soon belong to its readers among the juniors. And copies on the seminar table—at least the copies not borrowed from the library—will likely bear the marks of this ownership, even before the conversation starts. Certain sentences underlined; a whole paragraph bracketed; a page-number circled; the page itself bookmarked. Then the marks in the margins: a question mark, a check mark, an exclamation point; even a word or phrase written out, a whole sentence crowded in, possibly several at the page’s top or bottom. On a blank page in the front or back, we might even find an outline. To this legible extent, we could say that reading the book thickens the book, at least by every reader with a pen in hand. But this is only prelude to how reading the book lengthens the book, once the opening question is asked. For at that point, we each put our reading of the book into words of our own. And unlike the words of the writer, which come in order from first to last, there is no such order from first to last in the words of the reader. Not that the outcome is chaos; the outcome is conversation. And after that, perhaps an essay on the book, followed by more conversation in the oral. But this, then, is another way that the reader’s words differ from the writer’s: for the writer has the last word in a way that the reader never will. The book is lengthened by the reader to some indefinite point. We could even call it an infinite point—at least for any book about which there is always more to write, more to say, more to think. And with a book like Pride and Prejudice, we can make the difference in length precise. The words of the writer make this book about twelve hours long, using the average running time of an audiobook. But the book has been lengthened, since its publication date, by the words of every 12 �reader, to make it two hundred and ten years long—and counting. If we accept this difference in length as real—and I only have time enough left in the lecture to run with it—then it looks as if a book is always made of its words in two ways rather than one. One way is by the writer, whose words make the book a finite thing. But the other way is by the reader, whose words make the book an infinite thing. This difference seems to hold even if the reader remains silent. For what happens, exactly, when we pull the book off a shelf, open it up, and begin to read? Are we carried somewhere else—my earlier way of putting it? Or are we glued to a chair with our nose in the book—which is how it would look to anyone else? And what of the book itself? Does it remain a small, hard, rectangular object, with pages bound into covers? Or does it become like a canvass that doesn’t exist? The dichotomy in these questions is essentially between the finite and the infinite. Or if you prefer: between the bound and the unbound. And the difference is made by the words. Do they bind the book to its pages, and the reader in turn? Or do they free the book from its pages, and the reader in turn? Suppose the answer is “yes” to both. Could this be how the words of a book make its being elusive—to recall my hypothesis? The elusive, in this case, would involve a contradiction in the words, and the way they limit the book at the same time they liberate the book. My hypothesis, put this way, also allows me to recast my hunch. Perhaps St. John’s is committed to the contradiction in a book—the contradiction, more exactly, that is a book. If so, there ought to be signs of how we live in the contradiction. Here are two, I think. One is the conversation of a seminar, which at our college replaces the lecture given by a professor nearly everywhere else. What makes this kind of conversation possible? What is it about a book that can prompt a discussion of what it means, in place of any account? One thing—to recall a claim I quoted from our Statement—is that the books speak to us in more than one way. We seem to rely on this in seminar. For what if a book could only say the same thing to every reader in the room? The conversation would be at best a quoting of the book back and forth. But consider a second claim we make in our Statement—a claim that seems to contradict the first—to explain the point of seminar: The books can only repeat what they have to say, without furnishing the clarifications that we desire. To overcome this limitation is the goal of the St. John’s seminar.6 6 Statement, 2. 13 �We also seem to rely on this in seminar. For what if a book could only say a different thing to every reader in the room? The conversation would be at best a trading of translations by sight. It can only be a conversation, then, if the book says the same thing to every reader in the room at the same time it says a different thing to every reader in the room. And we live in this contradiction every Monday and Thursday night. But not only those nights. For a second sign of our life in contradiction comes from the book itself. This replaces the lecture of a professor even before the conversation begins. We read the book to see for ourselves what it says, with no need to hear it from anyone else. So peculiar is our commitment to the book in this respect that there exists in nearly every book we read an introduction we skip. But what makes this kind of reading possible? What is it about a book that can prompt a discovery of what it means, in place of any account? If we are not to read such an account, then it seems the book has to answer the question of what it means—completely. Yet if we are not to write such an account, then it seems the book has to raise the question of what it means—perpetually. Perhaps this explains the difference between the writer’s words and the reader’s. In the answer of what is meant, there is a last word in the writing of the book. But in the question of what is meant, there is no last word in the reading of the book. And when we are not living in this contradiction through conversation about the book, we are living in it through the book itself. V Or so the idea I have been running with would suggest of our commitment, if a book is always made of its words in two ways at once. There is no time left for me to question this final part of my lecture. But I do have time, I think, to question the whole of it—by way of conclusion. For have I really said anything about the being of a book? A book, that is, rather than a text? What is the difference, for example, between the books we read for seminar and the manuals we use for tutorial or laboratory? One answer is that the books are great—great in a way that our manuals, being manuals, will never attain. But if my hunch is right, calling our books “great” is no real answer. What then is the answer? There is perhaps only one place in my lecture where I address books in their being as books: at the beginning, in fourth-hand words. A book is a small, hard, rectangular object, whose pages are bound along one edge into fixed covers and numbered consecutively. 14 �Much of this description could apply a manual—or for that matter a senior essay. They are somewhat small and rectangular; and they can be at least as hard as a book in paperback. The pages are numbered consecutively; and we can bind them along one edge with rings, or a spiral, or staples. But the pages, thus bound, are not fixed in covers. In this respect, one page remains separated from the next. In particular, the last page is separated from the first, by all the pages in between. Not so with a book. The last page forms a cover with the first, to contain all the words in between. In this respect, the first and last page are one rather than two. In practice, from the use of signatures, this only holds for the front and back cover of a book. But we can use these covers to imagine the perfectly-bound book, where the first page forms a cover with the last, the second with the second-to-last, the third with the third-to-last, and so on. Perhaps you can see where I am going. The book is like any text insofar as the first page leads to the last; and this makes it finite. But in a book, and only a book, the last page leads to the first; and this makes it infinite. It starts to look as if the binding of a book allows the being of a book to be embodied. This being may remain elusive, even contradictory, if the book is finite and infinite at once. But the way a book is bound seems to allow the infinite to emerge from the finite. When we read the book once, as if it were finite, we are invited by the book to read it again, making the finite infinite. It is as if books were built to be read again, bound to be unbound. In one sense, “books to be read again” can sound like a platitude, especially if we think the books in question are great. Those books are obviously built to be read again. But even here I think the platitude is really a paradox. Let the books be great—at a school where books are not simply what we read, but how we learn and come to know. It may still make sense that we can read a book once, then read it again. But what could it mean to learn something once, and then—as if we unlearned it—learn it again? Or know something once, and then—as if we forgot it—know it again? Even the greatest book we read on this question, Plato’s Meno, leaves the answer—recollection—at the level of myth. Could being a book make it the truth? Daniel Harrell St. John’s College, Annapolis Friday Night Lecture February 23, 2024. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College. During the Fall and Spring semesters, lectures are given on Friday nights. 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Visit <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/st-johns-college-annapolis-lectures/id1695157772">Apple Podcasts</a> or <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6GDsIRqC8SWZ28AY72BsYM?si=f2ecfa9e247a456f" title="Spotify">Spotify</a> to listen and subscribe. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context formallectureseriesannapolis Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data pdf Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 15 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Being a Book Description An account of the resource Typescript of a lecture delivered on February 23, 2024, by Daniel Harrell as part of the Formal Lecture Series. Mr. Harrell describes his lecture: "When the so-called New Program was established at St. John’s College in 1937, conversation was to play no essential role—at least if you believe the first statement of the program, written by Scott Buchanan. Where you would expect the word 'conversation' you find 'instruction' instead, as in this brief description of the seminar: Meetings of seminar groups will occur twice a week with any additional meetings that special circumstances or difficulties may indicate. There will be two instructors in charge, and the instruction will make use of a wide range of devices from explication de texte to analysis of intellectual content and the dialectical treatment of critical opinion. When I read this description, I like to think that the importance of conversation to our endeavor emerged over time: a matter of discovery rather than dictate. Has something similar happened with the importance of books to our endeavor? We have always stated this importance in terms of what makes certain books great; but what makes them books, I have come to think, is even more central to our experience of reading them, discussing them, and learning from them. Perhaps there is no way to dictate by 'great' how we come to find ourselves in these books, just as there was no way to dictate by 'instruction' how we came to find ourselves in a conversation about these books. But what makes books books? What does it mean to be a book? This is the question of my lecture. And my hope—despite the St. John’s frame I use here—is that the lecture will be of interest to any reader of books, even if it fails, by my lights, to make full sense of a book." Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Harrell, Daniel Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2024-02-23 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource A signed permission form has been received stating, "I hereby grant St. John's College permission to: Make an audio recording of my lecture, and retain copies for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make an audio recording of my lecture available online. Make a typescript copy of my lecture available for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make a copy of my typescript available online." Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource Books Definition (Philosophy) Meaning (Philosophy) St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context LEC_Harrell_Daniel_2024-02-23 Friday night lecture Tutors https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/433170265cb61a133a1cd8d0c840eab4.pdf 89b0a8fc6dc76aa3170892a7ff0b03e2 PDF Text Text 1 What is the Measure of Electricity? 1 Howard J. Fisher What is the measure of electricity? The question itself raises questions. For not all things are susceptible to measure; and even when they appear to be, it is not always clear whether “measure” applies to them as wholes, or only in certain respects. For purposes of this talk, let me propose that a measure of something must, at minimum, enable us to speak of that thing in terms of more and less. Faraday inherited an electrical vocabulary that appraised electricity as more and less in two respects: first, in quantity; and second, in intensity. At the outset of Faraday’s researches, neither he nor anyone else had been able to state just what these two characteristics were, nor to explain how they related to one another. On the other hand, everybody had some rough and practical idea of them, as we may gather from Faraday’s unassuming characterization in the Third Series: The term quantity in electricity is perhaps sufficiently definite as to sense; the term intensity is more difficult to define strictly. I am using both terms in their ordinary and accepted meaning. [360, note] If Faraday regarded the term “quantity” as relatively straightforward, it is probably because at the time he began his researches, the conventional idiom of electrical thinking was that of electric fluid, a special kind of substance, thought to be endowed with the power to attract or repel other portions of electric fluid. Electric fluid was either vitreous, like that which could be evolved upon glass surfaces, or resinous, like that which could be produced on rubber, gum, amber, and similar materials. Portions of unlike fluids attracted one another; portions of like fluids repelled each other; and the more fluid there was, the stronger that attraction or repulsion would be. It is easy to know what we mean by “quantity” if electricity is a fluid. But is it a fluid? And how can we know? In contrast, as Faraday implies, the fluid language fails to offer a similarly clear image of intensity. What can it mean for a fluid to be more or less “intense”? Faraday will seek, and perhaps he will find, a clearer understanding of both these terms.  As the Third Series opens, we find Faraday in almost the same position as Socrates of the Meno; for how can we hope to know the properties of electricity unless we first know what electricity actually is? We well remember Meno’s reply when Socrates asked after the “what” of virtue: 1 Meno. “There will be no difficulty, Socrates, in answering that. Take first the virtue of a man: it is to know how to administer the state, in which effort he will benefit his friends and injure his enemies, and will take care not to suffer injury himself. A woman’s virtue may also be easily described: it is to order her house, and keep what is indoors, Lecture delivered 23 February, 2024 at St. John’s College, Santa Fe �2 and obey her husband. Every age, every condition of life, young or old, male, or female, bond or free, has a different virtue....” [71] Meno is positively exultant as he contemplates the rich variety of virtues! How disheartening is it, then, to consider that the electrical science of Faraday’s time, though professing to seek a unitary account of electricity, can offer little more than a Meno-like catalog of “electricities.” These include:  Voltaic electricity, which is evolved by devices like Alessandro Volta’s “cups.” Faraday will study voltaic action extensively in the Seventh Series and will show there its relation to chemical combining power.  Magneto-electricity, obtained through the relative motion of magnets and conductors, and which Faraday had already studied in the First Series.  Thermo-electricity, produced when the junction between two different metals is exposed to heat. A. B  Animal electricity, which is produced by several fascinating families of both freshwater and saltwater fishes. Faraday will study the wonderful electric eel in the Fifteenth Series, one of the most engaging of all his researches. And, finally...  Common or ordinary electricity. This is what we now call “static” electricity: the electricity produced primarily by friction—for example, by rubbing a resinous rod with wool, or a glass rod with silk. But how often do we undertake such highly specialized activities as these, except in a classroom or similarly contrived setting? In our day there would seem to be nothing at all “ordinary” about the electricity that arises from friction; but I assure you that when I was a child, rugs, sofas, and especially automobile seats, could easily give you a very unpleasant jolt if you carelessly walked across a carpeted room, or slid out of an upholstered piece of furniture, and then touched a doorknob or a water faucet. Today, many fabrics contain antistatic materials which greatly reduce the frequency of �3 such experiences; so for us, the terms “common electricity” and “ordinary electricity” are no longer apt, and they are consequently no longer in common use. Unfortunately, today’s more familiar term, “static electricity,” is misleading in its own way; for many of the signs that alert us to the presence of static electricity occur precisely when that electricity is not static! Those unpleasant shocks which lurked in my family’s home and automobile, patiently awaiting their opportunity to strike, represented the discharge of electricity which had previously been built up by friction: they were instances of electricity in motion, not electricity at rest. Faraday’s efforts to demonstrate the identicality of this “swarm” of electricities occupies the first and longer part of the Third Series. Only then does he set out upon the second part, where the topic is measure—and particularly the measure of quantity. Readers may notice a distinctive suppleness in the language Faraday adopts for this discussion: while he does not reject the imagery of electric fluids outright, he never crafts his descriptions in a way that depends on that imagery.  Now, one way we can estimate quantity—whether of electricity or anything that is evolved or produced—is to identify a repetitive element in the process that produces it; then, presumably, each repetition of that action will produce an equal amount afresh. Faraday obtained common electricity from a frictional “plate machine,” in which a large plate of glass was rotated against a fixed “rubber”—which was usually made of silkwrapped leather, rather than what we now call rubber. The appliance shown here is a smaller version of Faraday’s enormous machine, which featured a glass plate of fifty inches diameter—nearly four times as large as this one. 2 At several points in the Third Series Faraday treats each turn of his machine as developing the same quantity of electricity. You can see why such a supposition is reasonable; for it is easy to make sure that all revolutions of the crank are accomplished with uniform effort and speed. And to the extent that individual turns are identical to each other, there is no obvious reason why successive turns would not produce identical results. 2 Photo courtesy London Science Museum. The glass disk is 35 cm in diameter. �4 This “same-again” principle of reasoning is familiar to us in other contexts, such as grinding pepper in a mill. Indeed, in the case of grinding we are rewarded with a clear image of “quantity” in the form of a heap of the ground substance, as shown here. But when Faraday cranks his plate machine, no “heap” of electricity is produced. Is electricity even the sort of thing that possesses “quantity” in the sense of a heap, a pile, or a mound? Once again we are reminded of Socrates’ lament to Meno: “If I do not know the ‘what’ of something, how can I know the ‘such’ of it?” 3 In our present case, if we do not know the “what” of electricity, is it really meaningful to ask the “how much” of it? When Faraday remarked that the term quantity was “perhaps sufficiently definite as to sense,” he meant to acknowledge that we habitually think of “quantity” through images of accumulation or gathering up. But do not overlook the note of reservation suggested by his word “perhaps.” Faraday is far from confident that electricity is really amenable to such imagery. We regularly use such language for electricity without a second thought; but can we point to any body of experience that gives real content to that language?  If electricity does not manifest its quantity directly in experience, might it do so indirectly? Sometimes, for example, we think it natural to express the magnitude of something in terms of the power it exercises. Galileo offers a memorable instance in the Two New Sciences; Sagredo is speaking: “Thus a vast number of ants might carry ashore a ship laden with grain. And since experience shows us daily that one ant can easily carry one grain, and it is clear that the number of grains in the ship is not infinite, but falls below a certain limit, then if you take another number four or six times as great, and if you set to work a corresponding number of ants they will carry the grain ashore and the boat also. It is true that this will call for a prodigious number of ants...” [67] That delightful phrase, “a prodigious number of ants,” seems to employ the imagery of number; but its rhetorical burden is rather the sheer magnitude implied by the ability to move “the grain and the boat also.” The phrase expresses huge undifferentiated totality, whose greatness is known primarily by what it can accomplish. It is an indirect representation of quantity. 3 71A �5 Frictional electricity, too, seems to express quantity only indirectly. When a rubber rod is stroked with woolen cloth, it acquires the power to attract a small ball of cork or I \ pith. We say that the rod has been electrified, or charged with electricity; and in the left-hand sketch, the electrified rod has succeeded in drawing the ball aside through a moderate angle of perhaps 9 or 10 degrees. But after receiving additional strokes with the wool, the rod is able to urge the ball to a greater angle—perhaps as much as 18 or 20 degrees, as shown on the right. Is it not reasonable to believe that the rod on the right exerts more attractive force precisely because it has acquired more electricity? But this is conjecture, not direct experience. Any notion of quantity we can gain from this experiment is limited to what we can surmise from the angle of the suspended pith ball. But angle is no image of “muchness,” and it shares none of the straightforwardness of such eminently legible figures as heap, mound, or—in the fluid case—puddle. If not the pith ball, then, might some other electrical instrument offer a more immediate experience of electrical “quantity”? The distinctive power of electrified bodies to attract or repel other electrified bodies is the principle of several electric indicators that are considerably more refined than the pith ball. Two early instruments operate on the principle of mutual repulsion. The leaves of the gold-leaf electroscope, pictured here on the left, diverge from one another more or less, . depending, partly, on how many times the rubber rod has been stroked. On the right, Henley’s electrometer calls even sharper attention to angle by incorporating an obvious pointer and protractor in its design; when the instrument is mounted on the electrified conductor of a plate machine like Faraday’s, the pointer is repelled from the body, just like the leaves of the electroscope. With its angular scale, the Henley instrument emphatically announces its rhetoric of numerical measurement—and hence its name “electrometer” rather than “electroscope.” But what, exactly, does it measure? The �6 angle of the pointer, even when expressed numerically, still seems far removed from a direct image of quantity. In fact, one of Faraday’s experiments in the Third Series suggests that the electrometer is better understood as indicating some other electrical attribute—an attribute rather different from quantity, though it may be related to quantity. Faraday describes that experiment in paragraph 363 of the Third Series. It involves an array, or “battery,” of fifteen identical Leyden jars, like this one. You see that the central conductors, which are connected to the jars’ inner coatings, are all joined together. Within the wooden container, the outer coatings rest upon a conductive plate that is connected to the flexible chain B, which in turn is connected to the earth. Faraday will charge these jars using the plate electric machine. Notice the Henley electrometer mounted on the prime conductor; this was one of the chief applications of the Henley device. At first Faraday connects only eight of the jars, charging them by thirty turns of the plate machine. This causes the electrometer to rise to some position A. Does that position represent the quantity of electricity supplied to the jars? Certainly that quantity must be considerable, since Faraday noted that merely one revolution of the plate will, in his words, “give ten or twelve sparks from the conductors, each an inch in length.” 4 At a later stage of his experiment, Faraday charges all fifteen jars, again by thirty turns of the machine. This time, he reports, The Henley’s electrometer stood not quite half so high as before... 4 Paragraph 290. �7 Obviously the electrometer is not measuring quantity! For the quantity of electricity was the same in both cases—the result of thirty turns of the machine. Yet with a greater number of jars, the electrometer reading was lower by more than half. What electrical characteristic was it, then, that the electrometer measured when it registered that striking reduction? In hopes of answering this question, let us conduct an experiment of our own. Recall that Faraday noted the generous number of sparks produced with each turn of the plate machine. This should give us pause: why does the machine produce a series of sparks rather than one continuous spark? To study the conditions under which spark develops, I will use an electrometer of still greater refinement—one which, although invented long after the Henley device, does not differ greatly from that instrument in the essentials of its operation. The electrostatic voltmeter operates on the principle of attraction rather than repulsion. On C the left is a photograph of our meter. It dates from the 1950s, and is therefore calibrated in units whose defining assumptions would have had little meaning to Faraday. But we can regard the scale divisions as arbitrary units of attractive force; let me explain this. On the right is a much-simplified diagram of the meter’s internal mechanism. A movable plate B is mounted on a pointer which pivots at C and is held in an equilibrium position by a very light spring. Plate A is fixed in place. When the plates are oppositely electrified, they attract one another; and plate B will move upward until its force of attraction is balanced by the spring. The pointer’s angle of displacement then reflects the amount by which the spring has been stretched, and therefore, also, the force of attraction between the plates. The scale divisions are so marked as to represent, broadly, equal increments of that force. 5 We will connect the electrometer’s plates to a Wimshurst machine. I have separated the machine’s terminals by about a millimeter or so (VIDEO BEGINS). This is not really accurate, since true volt-meters must take into account both the plate separation and effective plate area, both of which vary as the reading increases. But in the meter we are using, the correction can be ignored for our purposes. 5 �8 Next, I will slowly crank the machine—and notice that the meter rises until a spark develops, at which point the needle suddenly falls. As I continue to crank, the meter repeatedly exhibits this pattern of rise to a maximum, followed by abrupt descent when the spark passes. The maximum is not always the same; but there always is a maximum, and the subsequent descent always coincides with the spark. The regular association between the meter’s descent and the spark suggests a more pointed question: “What is the condition between the terminals just before the spark passes?” Whatever that condition is, it evidently results in spark each time it occurs. And since the electrometer consistently develops a maximum reading just prior to each spark, it seems very likely that the electrometer is indicating precisely that condition which, when it reaches a certain degree, results in spark. What, then, is the nature of that condition?  Faraday thought of the spark—and, for that matter, all instances of electric discharge—as the breakdown of an antecedent state of stress in the region where the discharge takes place. Faraday calls that region, or the material which may occupy it, the “dielectric.” Here is his description in the Twelfth Series: All the effects prior to the discharge are inductive; and the degree of tension which it is necessary to attain before the spark passes is therefore ... a very important point. It is the limit of the influence which the dielectric exerts in resisting discharge; it is a measure, consequently, ... of the intensity of the electric forces in activity. This golden passage finally lends imaginative content to the term “intensity,” which seemed so questionable to Faraday at the outset of the Third Series. The chief manifestation of electrical action is a condition of tension in the region between two surfaces, and that action is said to possess intensity commensurate with the degree of that tension. “Intensity,” then, characterizes the action; “tension” the region or material that experiences that action. The distinction between intensity and tension is a subtle, but a natural one. We find a comparable distinction in two descriptions of Odysseus’ great bow in Book 21 of the Odyssey. The suitor Antinous knows the bow in terms of its own strength, which makes stringing it so difficult. He warns the crowd: 6 6 Homeric passages translated by Gilbert Murray. �9 “For not easily, I think, is this polished bow to be strung.” (line 90) (The image in this slide is that of a fifth-century Theban coin.) But once the bow is strung and in action, it is known by the thrum of its string, the sign of surpassing tension: 7 And Odysseus held it in his right hand, and tried the string, which sang sweetly beneath his touch... (line 408) Just as Odysseus’ stout bow reveals its strength through the superlative degree of tension it creates in the string, so electric action reveals its strength, or intensity, in the form of tension in the material between oppositely-charged electrodes. Intensity and tension are two different rhetorical aspects of electrical action: “intensity” characterizes the action itself (corresponding to the bow); “tension” characterizes the material or region which experiences that action (analogous to the bowstring). Do not underestimate the scientific importance of such metaphorical images as those of string and bow. Without them, or something like them, our understanding of natural powers would degenerate into a merely formal correlation of numbers with numbers. But any reader of Faraday quickly discovers that Faraday has little interest in symbols, numerical or otherwise. Faraday is constantly alert for legible images that convey the essential character of nature’s beings and powers. What is so remarkable about Faraday’s experimental practice is how much of it consists in allowing the phenomena to reveal their own images. 8  7 8 Illustration: detail from an etching by Theodoor van Thulden, part of a series produced in 1632–33. Fisher, Howard, “The Great Electrical Philosopher,” The College, XXXI,1 (July 1979). �10 Faraday’s interpretation of electrical discharge as being essentially a release of antecedent tension departed sharply from the then-accepted account, represented here on the left. Conventional thinking posited a buildup of opposite electric fluids on the 0 5 ed buildup of . Sup_ 1• e (+) electric fluid pos11v sed buildup of . Supo. (-) electric fluid negative j Tension surfaces between which spark took place. As those fluids accumulated—or so the account maintained—the inherent repulsion of like portions of fluid, combined with the mutual attraction of unlike portions, would eventually propel the electrical substances across the gap to combine with and nullify one another. Notice that the conventional view recognizes no role for the space or material between the charged surfaces; all action is ascribed to the electrical fluids. Faraday’s view—represented on the right—reverses the order of priority by focusing on the gap rather than the bodies which it separates, ascribing tension to the gap, but assigning no causative role to the adjoining bodies, nor to any supposed buildup of electricity upon them. If the dielectric material occupying the gap is capable of sustaining high degrees of tension, it constitutes what we call an “insulator”; but all known insulators, including air, have a limit to the tension they can sustain, and when this limit is exceeded, they break down, electrically speaking. The release of tension associated with that breakdown is disruptive discharge, or spark. In contrast to insulators, the materials classed as “conductors” are incapable of withstanding any tension at all; they break down under the slightest degree of electrical tension, and the condition of continuous breakdown under tension is how Faraday understands “current” in a conductor. Thus the electrometer’s pattern of rise and sudden fall in our spark experiment gives us reason to believe that the electrometer measures that very tension—or its rhetorical counterpart, intensity. 9 How does it do so? If you recall our earlier diagram of the electrometer’s inner workings, you will remember that the needle’s Throughout the Eleventh and Twelfth Series we find Faraday using the terms “tension” and “intensity” almost synonymously. 9 �11 displacement indicated the degree of extension of the internal spring, and hence the force on the moving plate—or, rather, the tension in the region between the plates. But of course the condition of the electrometer’s own plates is not what we are interested in! If the electrometer is to function as a measuring instrument, the pointer’s displacement must tell us about some other object—the object whose condition we wish to measure. How is that possible? Consider, from the standpoint of tension, what must be the case when the electrometer plates are connected to the terminals of the Wimshurst machine. When C the machine is operated, electrical tension is established in the air between its terminals D and E. I say that equal tension must therefore develop in the region between the electrometer plates A and B; for if the tensions were not equal, the conductors DA and EB would together have to bear the difference between those tensions. But recall that, for Faraday, a conductor is incapable of sustaining electrical tension. Thus the tension between A and B must be equal to the tension between D and E; and the needle’s displacement will therefore reflect not only the tension between the electrometer plates but the tension between the Wimshurst terminals as well.  Have we gained any fuller understanding of those troubling electrical terms, quantity and intensity? Faraday’s study of the forms of electric discharge, especially spark, led to the idea of electric tension; and that image of tension, in turn, does indeed seem to offer a firmer notion of intensity, namely, the action producing a certain level of tension in a dielectric. But what about quantity? Initially, we looked to the electroscope as an indicator of quantity; but successive refinements of that instrument brought us, not closer to, but farther and farther away from the expected imagery. All our attempts to find, in experience, the imagery that a material substance would ordinarily demand—a localized heap, mound, or puddle—have led us instead back to tension. Why do the phenomena of static electricity seem to lead us so persistently away from “heap” imagery and toward the vocabulary of tension? Might that be a sign that tension is actually more fundamental than quantity? In fact, Faraday already has ample grounds for this view; for if electrifying a body really represents the accumulation of electric substance upon it, we ought to be able to �12 electrify a body “absolutely," that is, without relation to any other body—just as we can fill a glass with water regardless of whether or not we fill any other container with water. But Faraday’s famous Cage Experiment, along with other investigations, showed definitively that no body can be in a “charged” condition at all except through a mediating relation with some other, oppositely charged, body. This means that there is no such thing as a quantity of electricity in itself. Every instance of electric charge is but one element of a mutual relation to which Faraday gives the name “induction”; and in a striking passage in the Eleventh Series he explicitly elevates the relation over the things related: All charge is sustained by induction. All phenomena of intensity include the principle of induction ... All currents involve previous intensity and therefore previous induction. INDUCTION appears to be the essential function both in the first development and the consequent phenomena of electricity. [1178] Furthermore, since all of what Faraday calls the “phenomena of intensity” involve tension in a dielectric, then it is the dielectric, not the so-called “charged” body, which is to be counted as the principal entity in static electricity. In Faraday’s words, In the theory of induction founded upon ... action of the dielectric, we have to look to the state of that body principally for the cause and determination of the ... effects. [1368] 10 If the dielectric is indeed the principal entity in static electric induction, it is easy to see why Faraday devoted so much of the Eleventh Series to studying the dielectric specifically. To that end, he designed the special “inductive apparatus” illustrated here. The appliance on the left is an historical reproduction; 11 Faraday’s own diagram appears on the right. Today we would call this contrivance a spherical capacitor; but it In an omitted term Faraday characterizes the action in question as “molecular.” By this he merely means action at the level of small portions of the dielectric. He does not refer to chemical molecules of the sort propounded by atomic theory—as readers of his 1844 paper, “A Speculation touching Electric Conduction and the Nature of Matter,” will appreciate. See Experimental Researches in Electricity, Vol. II (1844), p. 284. 10 Photograph generously supplied by Dietmar Höttecke; see Höttecke, Dietmar, “How and What Can We Learn From Replicating Historical Experiments? A Case Study.” Science & Education 9, 343–362 (2000). 11 �13 is essentially a Leyden jar consisting of an outer and an inner conductor, with electrical connection to the inner conductor established by a conductive wire terminating at the little sphere on top. Faraday’s experiments established for all time the pre-eminent role of the dielectric in induction. We can emulate Faraday’s induction experiments. 12 In place of his spherical capacitors, we shall use a pair of our adjustable plate capacitors, set to equal plate separations and thus electrically identical. Faraday placed his two identical inductive devices on a grounded metal work surface, so that their outer conductors were permanently connected to the earth while their inner conductors remained free. We will use a heavy copper wire for the same purpose by connecting it to the earth. The righthand plates of our capacitors are joined to it, and are thus in permanent electrical contact. The lefthand plates will be isolated from one another, except when I briefly connect them later. To measure the electrical tension that developed when his devices were charged, Faraday employed a sensitive torsion balance, pictured here on the left. That fine instrument balanced the tension between two electrified spheres against the elastic twist of a slender thread—just as our modern electrometer, as in the diagram we saw earlier, balances the tension between two electrified plates against the elastic stretch of a spring. Both instruments, therefore, serve to measure electric tension. 12 Faraday describes this series of experiments in paragraphs 1208–1214. �14 Faraday possessed only a single balance with which to measure both his inductive devices; but we have the luxury of using two electrometers, one for each capacitor, A B To earth designated A and B, respectively. Let me first outline the procedure we shall be following; then I’ll show some videos of the actual experiment. Faraday began by charging only one of his devices. Similarly, I will connect the Wimshurst machine to capacitor A alone, and crank it until the electrometer B To earth approaches its full scale reading. Capacitor A will thus sustain a definite tension, indicated by the electrometer. Capacitor B, of course, will remain uncharged and will sustain no electric tension. Next I will momentarily join the ungrounded capacitor plates. Now, think about To oatlh what must happen when I do that. The joining wire is a good conductor, so it cannot �15 sustain tension; therefore when contact is made, the electrical condition of both capacitors should instantly change to make their respective tensions equal, and we should expect both electrometers to read the same. That will constitute the first part of our experiment; so now, let us carry out the steps I just described (VIDEO BEGINS). Here is the setup. The copper wire that is appearing on the left will connect capacitor A to the Wimshurst machine... Now I am cranking the machine, and you can see the electrometer rise almost to its full scale. And here is a closeup view of the electrometer; it shows that Capacitor A is sustaining a tension of 2.80 units. I could not fit the second electrometer into this view, but it reads zero—as of course it must, since Capacitor B was not charged. Now I join the capacitors momentarily ... and the tension in Capacitor A falls; we’ll take a closeup look at the electrometer to see the new value... The tension in Capacitor A has fallen to 1.37 units, while the tension in Capacitor B has risen to the same amount, as it must—though, again, I could not include both meters in the same view. Now, this change in tension took place when I allowed Capacitor A to share its electricity with Capacitor B. But since the capacitors are identical, they ought to divide that electricity equally—so that each capacitor should now embrace half the quantity of electricity that resided originally in Capacitor A alone. And the tension in both capacitors is 1.37 units, that is, almost exactly half the initial tension of 2.80 units. Thus as the quantity of electricity in Capacitor A diminished to half, so too its tension diminished to half. Evidently tension is here proportional to �16 quantity! But doesn’t this contradict what we saw in the Third Series? For there, when Faraday charged first eight Leyden jars, and then fifteen, with the same quantity of electricity, his Henley electrometer gave two different readings; and obviously if one magnitude can take on two different values while the other remains unchanged, those magnitudes cannot be proportional. This reasoning, though, overlooks a critical difference between the two experiments. In the Third Series, Faraday was comparing the tension of a fixed quantity of electricity distributed first over eight jars and then over fifteen jars, as illustrated here. The electrometer readings are indeed very different, just as Faraday reported. But our experiment, like Faraday’s in the Eleventh Series, compares the tensions of different quantities of electricity in one and the same capacitor. The two experiments are not comparable, because in the earlier exercise the physical environment underwent significant change—from a smaller number to a greater number of jars— while in the later experiment the environment did not change: the electrometer measured the variation of tension in one and the same capacitor. Clearly, the physical environment affects how much tension a given quantity of electricity will develop. This should not surprise us, since that environment includes the dielectric; and we have already seen how central is the role of the dielectric, according to Faraday’s thinking. The next step in Faraday’s experiment, and in ours, will confirm that central role by showing that different dielectric materials develop specifically different tensions. Faraday filled the air space in one of his devices with various substances; and we shall do the same to our capacitor B by inserting a sheet of glass between its plates. Then we will run through the same experimental sequence as before; but remember that this time, our capacitors will no longer be identical. (VIDEO BEGINS.) You see I have mounted a glass sheet between the plates of Capacitor B. �17 And again we connect Capacitor A to the Wimshurst machine, and charge it to an initial tension.... Its electrometer reads 2.83 units, nearly the same as before, while of course the other electrometer continues to read zero. Again I briefly join the two capacitors together; and the electrometers once more display equal deflections—as they must, since the tensions have to be equal. But notice that this time the tension is not equal to half the original tension... Instead the tension is only 1.02 units, roughly one-third of the initial tension. How shall we understand this? When Faraday obtained a similar result with his spherical capacitors, he concluded that the apparatus containing a solid dielectric had, in his words, “a greater aptness or capacity for induction” than the apparatus whose dielectric was air. To see what he means by this phrase, let us analyze our results in the same way that Faraday interpreted his. When I joined the two devices, the charged capacitor gave some of its electricity to the uncharged capacitor. Specifically,:  The capacitor with air dielectric lost a certain quantity of electricity, and its tension decreased by 1.81 units.  The capacitor with glass dielectric gained that same quantity of electricity, but its tension increased by only 1.02 units—a much smaller amount. Air dielectric-greater change Glass dielectric-smaller change I~ \ I~ \ by 1.81 units by 1.02 units �18  Thus one and the same quantity of electricity is associated with lower tension when the dielectric is glass, and higher tension when the dielectric is air. Evidently, then, “greater capacity for induction” means the ability to sustain the same quantity of electricity at a lower tension. Or, equivalently, it denotes the ability to sustain a greater quantity of electricity at the same tension. We could go on, as Faraday does, to show that a dielectric’s “capacity for induction” depends on its dimensions as well as its specific material. But the main point is clear: where static electricity is concerned, our only access to electrical “quantity” is indirect—through the measurement of tension, 13 taking account of the medium’s capacity for induction. And thus we must regard electrical quantity as only an alternative rhetorical expression for tension—a special figure of speech. Recall Faraday’s earlier remark, that we have to look principally to the state of the dielectric for the determination of the electric effects. In contrast, he described the supposedly “charged” conductors in this almost dismissive way: The conductors ... may be considered as the termini of the inductive action.... [1361] Charged bodies, then, are merely the boundaries of electrical action, not its cause! To say that a body is “charged” no longer labels it as the source of electric effects, but merely the place where a medium that does sustain tension switches to a medium that does not. With this characterization, Faraday has effectively turned the conventional order of causal priority on its head. Charge is no longer prior to tension; rather, tension is prior to charge. Whatever else this may mean, it fatally undercuts the notion that “charge” is the name of an electrical substance, for—to use an Aristotelian formulation that would have been quite foreign to Faraday: “How can a non-substance be prior to a substance?” 14  I hope I have conveyed how thoroughly Faraday’s account of electricity inverted the conventional understanding. At the same time, I hope it is clear that Faraday did not arrive at his unorthodox view through polemic or disputation. He did not marshal evidence so as to refute the established conceptual scheme. In fact, at least in the Experimental Researches, Faraday hardly ever engages in “collecting evidence,” any more than he engages in symbolic mathematics. Instead, he looks directly to nature showing itself. Classic doctrines of scientific “method” emphasize putting hypotheses and conjectures to the test, establishing a preponderance of evidence for or against them. For electricity undergoing discharge, as Faraday shows, the ballistic galvanometer offers an alternative measure of quantity. But while it might seem obvious that when electricity discharges, its quantity in discharge must be the same as its quantity prior to discharge—when it was still static—the problem of correlating the measures of static and dynamic electricity would prove to be a knotty one. It would eventually become the problem of relating the electrostatic unit to the electromagnetic unit, the problem that would lead Maxwell to his electromagnetic theory of light. 13 14 Aristotle, Physics, Book I (189a34) tr. Cornford. In the present case, how can tension (not a substance) be prior to electric fluid (a substance)?—implying that electric “fluid” is not actually a substance after all. �19 Such an approach is suited to an alien world, a world indifferent to human understanding, a world in which, as has been said, “nature loves to hide.” 15 Faraday’s world, on the contrary, shows itself in forms that may challenge our understanding; but they are not incommensurable with it. Faraday’s science flourishes in a world that is fit for us, a world that is preeminently knowable. How did Faraday manage to nourish a scientific outlook so little influenced by conventional scientific doctrine? A customary answer to this question singles out Faraday’s lack of a conventional education. To be sure, Faraday had little formal education and was largely self-taught; but the materials of his self-education were steeped in established knowledge. As a bookbinder’s apprentice, he read volumes of the Encyclopædia Britannica while engaged in binding them. By his own account he benefited greatly from Jane Marcet’s Conversations in Chemistry, a lovely book which, however, reliably held to established and accepted teachings. 16 Through the generosity of a friend of his employer, Faraday was able to attend lectures by Humphrey Davy, an establishment figure in science if there ever was one. I do not think it was ignorance of established science that explains Faraday’s relative indifference to it. Much of his practice in “reading the book of nature” 17 points instead to his religious tradition.  Faraday belonged to a very small Christian denomination, the Sandemanians, a dissenting offshoot of the Church of Scotland. Sandemanians eschewed theology and had no established clergy; instead, the Bible was the central source of guidance in every aspect of their lives. Reading the Bible demanded no special credentials, for it was written in human language for the sake of human understanding. 18 Similarly, they saw the natural world as having been created as a gift and a fitting home for mankind. Like the biblical text itself, the created world was seen as a channel of God’s communication with the human race. You can see how such views concerning nature could inform Faraday’s methods of natural investigation. If natural phenomena show themselves in terms we can grasp, they will not need to be expressed mathematically—or, for that matter, through any other external symbology. We see from Faraday’s own example that the study of nature requires patient and prolonged labor—but much of that labor stems not from nature’s recalcitrance but from our own sluggishness to put familiar thought patterns aside—what Faraday once called “mental inertia” 19—and allow the phenomena to speak to us directly. For Faraday, at least, the means for cultivating an ear for nature’s 15 Heraclitus, B123 Jane Marcet never sought to break new scientific ground; but by composing instructional texts that were explicitly directed to young women, she conspicuously broke new social and educational ground. 17 Geoffrey N. Cantor, “Reading the Book of Nature: The relation between Faraday’s Religion and his Science” in Faraday Rediscovered: Essays on the Life and Work of Michael Faraday, 1791–1867. The Macmillan Press, Ltd. (1985). 16 See David Gooding, Michael Faraday, 1791–1867: Artisan of Ideas. http://www.bath.ac.uk/~hssdcg/ Michael_Faraday.html, 15 June 2002; accessed 4 September 2023 through the Wayback Machine. 18 See Faraday’s “Observations on Mental Education” (1854) in Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics (1859), p. 463 19 �20 dialect and an eye for its forms are practical rather than analytical. Before he asks questions in speech, he asks them in practice; such are Faraday’s experiments. Nevertheless, while Faraday’s mode of experimenting clearly reflects central elements of the Sandemanian outlook, it would be a mistake see him only as dutifully putting the Sandemanian creed into action. Faraday just doesn’t write as though he were feeling the weight of doctrinal obligation. His prose, both in his laboratory Diary and in the published Researches, is simply too fresh, too lively, too responsive to what just happened. There is a palpable difference between being open to nature and observing a code of being open to nature. I invite you to think about that difference— the difference between responsiveness and responsibility 20—and how it plays out both in consciousness and in speech. But for now let us return to the terms “quantity” and “intensity,” the two candidates for electrical measure; for as regards their lucidity, I think we will have to acknowledge that the terms have effectively exchanged places. The term intensity, which Faraday initially found “more difficult to define,” has gained considerable clarity, since Faraday has been able to assimilate to it the figures of speech associated with tension; and we may now understand electrical intensity as commensurate with the degree of tension developed in a specified region. But the term quantity, which Faraday previously thought “sufficiently definite as to sense” has instead become highly questionable. For the “definite sense” of that term rested on the image of heaping up or accumulation of electrical substance; and we have seen how that image has repeatedly failed to find any grounding in experience. Moreover, now that Faraday has identified the primary electrical entity as being the dielectric under tension, not the so-called charged body, any idea of “quantity of electric substance” can only be regarded as a merely verbal one—a figure of speech. Under such circumstances, would it not behoove any responsible thinker to avoid the term “quantity of electricity” altogether? And yet Faraday continues to speak of “quantity of electricity” throughout the remainder of the Eleventh Series, and in the Twelfth, Thirteenth, and Fifteenth Series. Why would he do this? Faraday nowhere speaks directly to that question as regards electrical terminology; but he does address a similar one in connection with the language of atoms. Some of you have read, and some of you will read, his 1844 paper, “A Speculation touching Electric Conduction and the Nature of Matter.” 21 In that essay, after having reviewed his many reservations about the theory of atoms, and hence also the atomic language that takes their existence for granted, he nevertheless admits, I feel myself constrained, for the present hypothetically, to admit them [that is, atoms], and cannot do without them. Here, then, is another instance where Faraday feels obliged to make at least provisional use of a terminology that has not been grounded in phenomena. A doctrinaire purist would have avoided such a compromise; but Faraday’s openness Contrast, for example the Knight of Faith in Kierkegaard’s Fear and Trembling with the rule-inferring “insomniac” who, reflecting on Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice Isaac, confidently deduces, “Oh, I see how it works: you raise the knife, and then suddenly there’s a ram!” 20 21 Experimental Researches in Electricity, Vol. II (1844), p. 284, esp. page 289. �21 extends to language as well as to experience, for each of these must evolve along with the other. Natural phenomena show themselves in forms and images that human beings can apprehend; and those images continually try to shape a language that is anchored in the phenomena. But such a language requires discovery, interpretation, and adeptness; and these in turn require time, patience, and love. As we do not expect to take in a dialogue, or a drama, on first reading, we must not expect to “perform” experiments once only and then set them aside. We must live with them, enter into them, and try them again and again. The idea is less to get the right answer, than to capture the right idiom. The book of nature deserves multiple readings; and no two of those readings are likely to be quite the same. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Lecture Transcripts—Santa Fe Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Meem Library Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Santa Fe, NM Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College at the Santa Fe, NM campus. Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data paper Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 21 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource What is the Measure of Electricity? Description An account of the resource Transcript of a lecture given by tutor Howard Fisher on February 23, 2024 as part of the Dean's Lecture & Concert Series. The Dean's Office has provided this description of the event: "Faraday made use of numerous electrical measuring instruments; but what, exactly, did they measure? What properties of electricity are "measurable" at all? Faraday's efforts to identify these properties raised a question which Meno would have recognized: how can we know the properties of electricity unless we first know what electricity actually is?" Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fisher, Howard J., 1942- Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Santa Fe, NM Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2024-02-23 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Meem Library has been given permission to make this item available online. Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource Electricity Faraday, Michael, 1791-1867 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SF_FisherH_What_is_the_Measure_of_Electricity_2024-02-23 Friday night lecture https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/918955aa969820ba91330685ca00088a.mp3 da58b213e69eeab5c7b5a8b7e1ecc7c3 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College. During the Fall and Spring semesters, lectures are given on Friday nights. Items include audio and video recordings and typescripts.<br /><br />For more information, and a schedule of upcoming lectures, please visit the <strong><a href="http://www.sjc.edu/programs-and-events/annapolis/formal-lecture-series/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">St. John's College website</a></strong>.  <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Formal Lecture Series" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=5&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection.<br /><br />A growing number of lecture recordings are also available on the St. John's College (Annapolis) Lectures podcast. Visit <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/st-johns-college-annapolis-lectures/id1695157772">Apple Podcasts</a> or <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6GDsIRqC8SWZ28AY72BsYM?si=f2ecfa9e247a456f" title="Spotify">Spotify</a> to listen and subscribe. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context formallectureseriesannapolis Sound A resource primarily intended to be heard. Examples include a music playback file format, an audio compact disc, and recorded speech or sounds. Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 01:02:44 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Discovery of Entropy, 1824-1865 Description An account of the resource Audio recording of a lecture delivered on August 31, 2001, by Adam Schulman as part of the Formal Lecture Series. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Schulman, Adam Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001-08-31 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource A signed permission form has been received stating, "I hereby grant St. John's College permission to: Make an audio recording of my lecture, and retain copies for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make an audio recording of my lecture available online. Make a typescript copy of my lecture available for circulation and archival preservation in the St. John's College Greenfield Library. Make a copy of my typescript available online." Type The nature or genre of the resource sound Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource mp3 Subject The topic of the resource Carnot, Sadi, 1796-1832. Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu. Clausius, R. (Rudolf), 1822-1888. Ueber die bewegende Kraft der Wärme. Entropy Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context LEC_Schulman_Adam_2001-08-31_ac Friday night lecture Tutors https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/ff2cff0f5a91a5c2b864f29583b31cfe.mp3 1b35ca27be5727703363cb80adc896b7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Lecture Recordings—Santa Fe Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Meem Library Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Santa Fe, NM Sound A resource primarily intended to be heard. Examples include a music playback file format, an audio compact disc, and recorded speech or sounds. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data m4a Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 01:10:50 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ecology, Evolution, and Ontology of Elevational Ranges Description An account of the resource Audio recording of a lecture given by Ethan Linck on February 16, 2024 as part of the Dean's Lecture & Concert Series. The Dean's Office has provided this description of the event: "The elevational distributions of organisms have long fascinated scientists, an interest that has burgeoned with expectations of upslope movement of species in response to climate warming. Yet tests of this hypothesis have produced conflicting results, perhaps due to varied approaches and assumptions. In this lecture I will explore the historical roots of the concept of the elevational range in ecology and evolutionary biology, highlighting how it has been treated as both a byproduct of other phenomena and an object of study in its own right. I will then argue that this divide has created ontological and statistical issues for the field, and suggest areas for improvement." Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Linck, Ethan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Santa Fe, NM Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2024-02-16 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Meem Library has been given permission to make this item available online. Type The nature or genre of the resource sound Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource mp3 Subject The topic of the resource Ecology & environment Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SF_LinckE_Ecology_Evolution_and_Ontology_of_Elevational_Ranges_2024_02-16 Friday night lecture https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/f52c75f0b9eaace1cabeec234e90b71c.pdf bb216559fbb3be5f324ee55e843357ff PDF Text Text Colloquy On Creation 1 �2 �Table of Contents 4. Letter from the Editor 6. Poetry 22. Short Stories & Musings 32. Essays 66. Translations 79. An Interview with Associate Dean Brendan Boyle 3 �Letter from the Editor 4 �On Creation and the Value of Themes I think a short explanation of the role of theme within a publication is warranted, given its inclusion in a handful of recent issues of Colloquy. Not only is it useful for you, the reader, but for the contributors, and the editorial team. Without theme, we have nothing to judge against. I’m not speaking of judgements of quality, as we would have a difficult and spirited discussion about how to ascertain a work’s quality. Instead I mean “judge” as in weigh the value of any particular work within the context of its setting. I think the simplest way to explain the importance of a theme is to highlight how prevalent the habit of keeping something “thematic” is. You cannot say something coherently unless a theme renders what you say coherent. I’d first point to books, like the many we read here at St. John’s. If Kant deviated at all from theme then the Critique of Pure Reason would suddenly find itself impure and unreasonable. And what a detriment to the ends of that work such a change would be. A core aspect of our ingrained habit of storytelling is theme. It ties one plot point to the next and allows metaphor to shine in the liminal space between word and interpretation. The role of theme is the same as the role of words, to communicate, but theme on its own can communicate an entire catalogue of interpretations and emotions that words cannot in their isolation. So, let us focus on the theme for this issue of Colloquy: On Creation. Creation is among the most transcendent capabilities of any single thing. It can refer to the creation of new life or new purpose. We talk of artists as creators, and we say the same of gods. The role of creation is that something comes to fruition, and moves from a space purely other, that of the non-existent, to that of the tangible and knowable, materializing reality from concept. In a way, “On Creation” is not a theme that enforces rigid boundaries. Creation as act is available to the entirety of life’s beings, and seems to belong to nature’s fundamental forces. The Universe forges stars as we create an idea. As a theme, “On Creation” does invite the polity of the Graduate Institute to participate in the single most unifying capability of all the Universe. And so I would like to end this musing with what I hope the following submissions create within you, dear reader. I hope they create inspiration, so that some aspect of the style, content, or beauty of what you read here aids you in creating something wholly your own. I hope they create a reaction, as emotional states are a sudden and startling reminder that we are alive. And I hope they create a sense of appreciation for the brilliant, curious, and creative minds that make up the polity of the Graduate Institute, in this time and place. Thank you, and give witness to creation. Stephen Borsum - Editor 5 �Poetry & Musings On Creation Old Dog Forbidden Fruit Children of that World Mimi My Mind’s a Dark Forest Before the Blank Stare 6 �Contributors Austin Suggs Chris MacBride Stacey Rains Louis Petrich Sydney Rowe Sylvie Bernhardt John Harwood 7 �On Creation Austin Suggs What was in that dark Over which the Spirit’s spark hovered? There was water there it seems Though not the water of our streams. This was of a different order Not teeming with life But humming with the power Of a world not yet made But somehow already there. Did you tame primordial chaos Or disturb a primal peace? And what happened on that second day That caused the pen to betray Something was off. For it was not good Nor was it great. It simply was. Did the mass of land amidst the seas Begrudge the Spirit its roaming free A new strife where once there was peace? And tell me, how great was man, really, If you came to regret his progeny? And if he’s an image of you, Well, what are we to do With that? 8 �Somewhere with Warm Waters - Louis Petrich 9 �Old Dog Chris Macbride The click-clicking of four arthritic ankles announce him into the kitchen At 17, he’s still turning up whenever the recipe begins warm olive oil over medium heat, add 2 cloves garlic… We met him at a rescue and were told his first owner was a chef it explains a lot His back is now a long, deep sway between hip and shoulder curved like the mountain valley in Virginia where he was born He shakes his head and the World’s softest ears slap against sunken cheekbones These days, he speaks in low groans as if to say getting older stinks (like dog poop) And yet when the air outside turns chilly darn if he isn’t a pup again Trotting up the driveway eager to sniff out the latest news left by four-legged friends Nose to ground, tail wagging he is happy 10 �Forbidden Fruit Stacey Rains In 9th grade Biology, we dissected lilies; we carefully opened the white petals to access the pale green center, separated the stamen from the pistil, and   learned that even flowers have ovaries to grow life inside of life, inside the deep, protected center, comes the slow swelling and upwelling, ‘til the petals drop away, and all is given to the potential. I have wrestled with the discovery that trees can be dioecious– that plants also are gendered–and, more, that there exists a botanical misogyny. “When used for street plantings, only male trees should be selected, to avoid the nuisance from the seed.” Fertility is so inconvenient. Nevermind the spewing, fertile pollen that now dominates the landscape, causing red eyes and running noses. Nevermind regret. 11 �Children of that World Louis Petrich (Luke 20:34-36) “—they neither marry, nor are given in marriage—” That’s all, perhaps, you need to say to inculcate thy kingdom come and save us bouts of parables: your sower, famed as seeding ground that’s cursed, then straining after roots to clutch at light, next family farms and winter strawberries— all angelically void when wings caress god’s breath and ‘tis enough to harvest songs. Your late-hired field hands, prodigally paid for?-consider angels--any time--for free. The good Samaritan gets even better, stays the night with beaten travelers instead of backing home to wife and stacking nursing on an innkeeper, whose own shrewd wife, though scraping profit from the dirty sheets, with years grows tired of busybody neighbor feats. 12 �There’d be no rigmarole with folks declining t’attend the wedding--no resorting last to uncast idlers outing for a lark— when kingdom come has come, the nights are done that consummate, no made-up faces fine or bodies nipped and tucked to light a spark— O what a load from off the mind!--you lookers, mark. My savior dear, your promised kingdom parabolic could have been a kingdom literal, in words that summon what they mean forthright as prince’s peal: I say there shan’t be children given away from honied skies. For yes, I do remember Paradise-creation, mine to color. Then the pall, for none do slice off married once for all until they deal their evil able parts and die while knowing them inseparable. She, hearing how to swallow serpentine the world, tends him naked taste of inside out desire; henceforth, he’s good no more alone to name things as he will and hear the Lord approve. 13 �If only kingdom come, pie rained from sky, were plated now for simple thanks to still the pulpy verbiage, round it goes: “Now eat at once the astronomical wee apple that lets fall the dominoes.” Along come back pains, raking leaves from tree left-o’er uneaten, cracking truth on fossil fruit pertaining not to peaceful night of sleep ‘til death-with tugging of the limbs and closing in and never deeper getting than this flushing skin. To walk with God in cool breeze of the evening--unafraid of after-hidden, poor performing fool— that’s ever, and forever, bliss. For that, be overcome, O world amiss. 14 �Mimi Sydney Rowe Vertebrate coast. Silent boat. Cusp of tropics, touch pearl. Medicine inside embers. Sails high; flatter. Arcing Inwards to you. The tiny cabin with a bowl of salt. Cut open, pouring. 15 �My Mind’s a Dark Forest Sylvie Bernhardt Escape—run for the trees—evade; Before they mark me freak, No hope flickers warmth I might save. No others will I need learn. Down, down a dark stone cave Goes I, who dares and burns. I’ll claim honors as renegade, Down, down these mountain graves As friend to claw and beak. That shutter, crack, and groan. No good friend have they been to me— Community of Fear— Scratching fang nails on rusty rails, These wretched creatures roam. Conquer my last youthful decree: I’m no Devil nor deity; “I know this dark mirror.” Grisly death wings me home. Under night’s blanket I make haste Away from light, away. To fall in sight would lead to waste; Safety in darkness lay. Know I seek not a Paradise Where those wretched do roam. Those that claw against their stone tombs Wail, weak cretin cries. As I descend, no lights a friend Forever suckling purple blooms, To delve through depths returned. They who lives no more dies. Wicked shadows cling to bright kin, To I, who dares and burns. Brutish heads prevail in disorder, In guise of man though beast. Debased are they, the exploiter, And violence of brutes won’t cease. 16 �I move quietly in shadow But if my flesh be not my end, With sharp claw I unsheathe. Then question not my aim. No hatred I harbor in tow, Makers of form are divine kin, But blood be what we breathe. So worship not to tame. Should I consent to suffer more Tread on, but move most steadily, Or live in sunk despair? Else these shales might splinter, I know in cruelty they’ll restore And break. Striking me readily, A lust for death so fair. As done in past winter. Earth, oh Earth, cries do bury Depths I dove, and air gusts led An evil rot in mind. Through caverns and deluge. Spoken in tongues—restless fury A moonlit grove, past tamed, then freed— Stirs frenzied force blind. Now my living refuge. If only I had strength in hand to rake A melody of crinkling leaves The tremors from my flesh. Invokes safety’s soft glee. From my throat’s rage to the world’s break, Lantern flower blooms now breathes All cries ever languish. A loving warmth through me. Death I keep always in soft heart, Hold I no more despotic dark, That will know endless cold. While rose, mint and oak grows; Love binds us before we depart; Reflecting sanctuary’s mark Of All, this I now hold. Away I from old woes. 17 �Ruins are ripened with dull time. On this bed of oak leaves I sleep; I find the warm glow safe. No company I seek. Lonely lantern’s golden flame climbs My tale always to tell as creep, An ancient etched-stone waif. As friend to claw and beak. Secret garden beneath the falls Spiraling to center. Fire sprouts flame on vine-meshed walls Blooming in November. To stir thoughts of metaphysics I deny mind’s fetters. Alight there glows hieroglyphics— Spells in gold letters. Timber crackles in a dirt pit. Smoke fails to reach the floor. Poems I babble and I spit, So to deepen the lore. Tonight, what dreams will I endure? Be they kind or bleak? While rosy-cheeked dawn will ignore Me so tender and meek. 18 �Puck: Consider it a Dream - Nadine Bucca 19 �Before the Blank Stare John Harwood Here I sit and kneel Before the blank stare Of some little earth, An image, of one I have never seen nor touched. The more thoughts rattle In between my ringing ears, The less I can manage To imagine even the carving Of the one I’ve never seen. A faceless and mangled Homunculus of marble Stands before my penitent’s gaze. In fear, I can not fathom to begin; To set a chisel into the creature, To even gesture to the creator. How can I release anger and dread, Praise and duty, pent up In the veins and muscles Of marble, so finely shaped By the hands of the Almighty? 20 �Would even a painting, A lead etching, A mindless praying, Or even tranced dancing Begin to evoke the Unspeakable, The Ever-Perplexing? So, I sit and scratch lines into letters And letters into the pages of my heart That resembles the stone That patiently awaits Before my artist’s first minding. After a purging time of pondering Before the blank stare Of the One Unfathomed, Who fathoms me gently, I dare begin to finally set a mark. 21 �Short Stories & Musings Dialogue: Meeting with Descartes TRANSLATIONS The First Postulate 22 �Contributors Yonas Ketsela Cynthia Crane 23 �Dialogue: Meeting with Descartes Yonas Ketsela I set out on a journey today to meet with Descartes. He invited me to come and chat with him at his house. I have been anxiously waiting to see him all day. I have his book, Meditations on First Philosophy under my arms. After a long walk, I arrived at the appointed time, and I am now only waiting for his call. This is roughly how our conversations go: Descartes: “Let us for example take the wax; it has only just been removed from the honeycomb; it has not yet lost all the flavour of its honey; it retains some of the scent of the flowers among which it has gathered; its colour, shape, and size are clearly visible; it is hard, cold, easy to touch, and if you tap it with your knuckle, it makes sound. In short, it has all the properties that seem to be required for a given body to be known as distinctly as possible.” Yonas: What you said makes sense to me. This is in fact what I myself experimented on a candle before coming here. If I put it in my own words, what you describe is exactly what I characterise as my conscious sense-experience or sensations: the colour, shape, size of the candle belongs to my vision; it has some cedar flavour which belongs to my sense of smell and taste; its hardiness and coldness to my sense of touch; and its sound to my ear. Thus, all these sensations are distinct to me. Even though I am not sure if I can say that it is clear, nor do I know exactly what this experience means to me. Descartes: “But wait–while I am speaking, it is brought close to the fire. The remains of its flavour evaporate; the smell fades; the colour is changed, the shape is taken away, it grows in size, becomes liquid, becomes warm, it can hardly be touched, and now, if you strike it, it will give off no sound. Does the same wax still remain?” Yonas: It is unclear to me now how I can precisely answer the question whether the same wax remains or not. But one fact is clear to me that it has undergone some changes of appearance. Its previous qualities are not there anymore. My sensations are obviously diminished in reaction to this change. I can barely smell it, its colour is unclear, its shape somewhat deformed or irregular as a result of being in a change of state—from that of solid to liquid; I also cannot grasp it; its sound is not as distinct as before. So, I guess, so far as my sensation is diminished, I can say it is not exactly the same wax as before. In fact, if someone now breaks into the house and senses this wax, he would hardly be able to exactly predict or imagine its previous state. But as for me, I know what happened and I can remember its previous state–however vague it might be. So I don’t see the same wax as before. 24 �Descartes: [I see what you are saying but] “we must admit it does remain: no one would say or think it does not. So what was there in it that was so distinctly grasped? Certainly, none of those qualities I apprehended by the senses: for whatever came under taste, or smell or sight, or touch, or hearing, has now changed: but the wax remains.” Yonas: Ahh, you are right. I hadn’t reflected in this way before. But If I follow your suggestion, it does seem to me that what I distinctly grasped was first its number, namely, there was one wax here which has undergone a change from one state to another. But as you said, for its taste, smell, sight, touch and hearing, they become very obscure and even my imagination can only be a little to no help (given that my imagination is not good enough). My senses may still retain a certain trace of sensations in them, but I am sure they will disappear pretty soon (given that my memory does not always record these sensations accurately). In another extreme case, someone who does not have one of these sense organs may not participate in the same experience at all as I am now. I am now wondering if these qualities are not necessarily what belongs to the essence of this wax, then what is the essence of the wax apart from these qualities? Descartes: [Good], “perhaps the truth of the matter was what I now think it is: namely that the wax itself was not in fact sweetness of the honey, or the fragrance of the flowers or the whiteness, shape, or sonority, but the body which not long ago appeared to me as perceptible in these modes, but now appears in others. But what exactly is this that I am imaging in this way?” Yonas: That is exactly what I am wondering about too. Descartes: [Okay] “let us consider the matter and, thinking away those things that do not belong to the wax, let us see what remains.” Yonas: Ok. Good. Descartes: “Something extended, flexible, mutable: certainly, that is all.” Yonas: I think I can understand that. Descartes: “But in what do this flexibility and mutability consist? Is it in the fact that I can imagine this wax being changed in shape, from a circle to a square, and from a square into a triangle?” Yonas: Well, speaking in clear concepts, I think, that may be what we can understand by terms such as flexibility and mutability. But I am not sure if that is exactly what happens in reality. Descartes: [Okay] “That cannot be right: for I understand that it is capable of innumerable changes of this sort, yet I cannot keep track of all these by using my imagination.” 25 �Yonas: Now, I see what you mean, namely that the limitation of my faculty of imagination would not at all allow me to keep track of all these changes ad infinitum. Descartes: “What about ‘extended’? Surely, I know something about the nature of its extension. For it is greater when the wax is melting, greater still when it is boiling, and greater still when the heat is further increased.” Yonas: Yes, in some vague estimation, I can surely think of changes in its state, that is to say, from a solid state to liquid or further to gas, consequently its extension increases. Yes, I am not sure whether at a certain point, we may want to say that it is dispersed, and not any longer an extension but discrete parts in space. Descartes: [Okay, hold that thought] “And I would not be correctly judging what the wax is if I failed to see that it is capable of receiving more varieties, as regards extension, than I have ever grasped in my imagination.” Yonas: Your meaning is that if I cannot determine what this wax is like as it changes from one state into another in some notion or idea, then it seems that I could not do that by my imagination alone. Descartes: “Now [see] I am left with no alternative, but not to accept that I am not at all imagining what this wax is, I am perceiving it with my mind alone: I say ‘this wax’ in particular, for the point is even clearer about wax in general. So then, what is this wax, which is only perceived by the mind?” Yonas: If I remember correctly, we previously said that if we remove all the qualities from the wax, we will arrive at only flexibility, mutability, and extension. Is that what you mean? I mean that the mind can grasp the wax in these ideas and yet it would be the same wax. Descartes: “Certainly, it is the same wax I see, touch, and imagine, and in short it is the same wax I judged it to be from the beginning. But yet—and this is important—the perception of it is not sight, touch or imagination and never was, although it seemed to be so at first: it is an inspection by the mind alone, which can be either imperfect and confused, as it was before in this case, or clear and distinct, as it now is, depending on the greater or lesser degree of attention I pay to what it consists of.” Yonas: Indeed, that seems to be an interesting and important point. There seems to be much more happening in perception than my simple sensations. But I don’t quite see the problem yet. I do trust my senses that they can give me accurate sensations, but I hadn’t quite reflected in this way before—how my mind can be problematic to this experience or how it would inspect the wax apart from the senses and yet could be in error? Descartes: “...I am amazed by the proneness of my mind to error. For although I am considering this in myself silently and without speech, I am ensnared by words themselves, and all but deceived by the very ways in which we usually put things. For we say that 26 �we ‘see’ the wax itself, if it is present, not that we judge it to be there on the basis of its colour or shape. From this I would have immediately concluded that I therefore knew the wax by the sight of my eyes, not by the inspection of the mind alone.” Yonas: That difference makes sense to me. Descartes: [For example, as I am seeing this wax]..”If I had not happened to glance out of the window at people walking along the street, I have immediately concluded that I knew the wax by the sight of my eyes, not by the inspection of the mind alone but using the customary expression, I say that I ‘see’ them [the people in the street] just say I ‘see’ the wax. But what do I actually see other than hats and coats, which could be covering automata? But I judge that they are people. And therefore, what I thought I saw with my eyes, I in fact grasp only by the faculty of judging that is in my mind.” Yonas: This explanation does make much more sense to me now, especially when I connect it to what you said before about the degree of attention one needs to put in his observation of facts of experience. Thus, my mind’s imperfection and confusion then only consist in that it judges quickly and that is when it errs. Descartes: [Good] “Let us then go on where we left off by considering whether I perceived more perfectly and more evidently what the wax was, when I first encountered it, and believed that I knew it by these external senses, or at least by what they call common sense, that is imaginative power; or whether I perceive it better now, after I have more carefully investigated both what it is and how it is known. Certainly, it would be foolish to doubt that I have a much better grasp of it now. For what, if anything, was distinct in my original perception?” Yonas: I don’t believe we arrived at that yet. Descartes: [That is right] When I distinguish the wax from its external forms, and as if I had stripped off its garments, consider it in all its nakedness, then, indeed, although there may still be error in my judgement. I cannot perceive it in this way except by [my] mind…I have learned now that bodies themselves are perceived not, strictly speaking, by the senses or by the imaginative faculty, but by the intellect alone and that that they are not perceived because they are touched or seen, but only because they are understood, I clearly realise that nothing can be perceived by me more easily and more clearly that by own mind. Yonas: I am amazed by this conclusion. I think I would rather stop our discussion here. I want to go now and come back another day for more discussions. For now, I have enough thoughts to contemplate for the coming days. It is really nice meeting you and talking to you in such a respectful way. 27 �Walking to My House My dialogue with Descartes was very interesting and, on my way back home, I was contemplating deeply the significance of his conclusion. Descartes’s assertion is that in one’s act of thinking, he said, it is possible to strip all external impressions and concentrate a certain degree of attention to the object and receive a correct perception in the mind. This is conceivable. After a long walk, I finally arrived at my house. I was completely lost in contemplation; only when I looked at the flowers at the front door of my house that I was awakened to the facts of this amazing world. I said to myself, ‘that is my house.” I judged it correctly but the question that is still with me is how I did that— is it my mind or my senses that showed me the way here? Note: The Full Treatise of Descartes’s Discussion of the Wax is found in Book II of his Meditations on First Philosophy. 28 �The First Postulate Cynthia Crane A false and scurrilous tale Let it be postulated to draw a straight line from any point to any point. East of the dusty market, under a low dry tree, a girl put an open wooden box at the feet of her little brother. The boy did not notice, but stared at the curling clouds brushing the near-white sky, broken to bits by the branches and leaves of the olive. “Euclid, look,” she said, and tapped the box. Their mother, working the edge of the market, stopped her hawking, saw the children safe in conversation, and turned back to her selling. Nothing would come of it, she knew, and wished the girl would let her brother be. Euclid’s eyes moved slowly off the clouds and his mind moved slowly off the job of assembling them back to wholes from the fragments between the leaves. The box of sand assembled itself at his feet, and then his sister’s face: lips, teeth, sunned freckles, black eyes obscured by curls. “Euclid,” she said, “come back.” So he did. The boy knelt and smoothed the sand And smoothed the sand And smoothed the sand, Grains of glass under his palms Grains of glass under his palms Grains of glass under his palms and fingertips. Mother’s cries, “here, here, sailor,” Cut his ears like Grains of glass under his palms and fingertips. “Don’t listen,” the girl said, and shifted the box around so Euclid would not watch their mother. His tears were leaving tracks in the dust on his face, but she did not wipe them away, would not touch him and set him off. He spit the dirt out of his mouth, and watched it bead then sink into the ground. 29 �No. He smoothed the sand and smoothed the sand and smoothed the sand, grains of glass under his palms and fingertips. “Yes. Look.” His sister’s dirty finger poked a dot in the sand, And by it, another, And by it, another, And by it, another, Snaking a line across the box of sand, Awaking a serpent in his mind, Between his eyes, Behind his nose, Above the taste of salty olives and grape leaves boiled in wine Lingering Annoying On his tongue. He spit again. No. The serpent reared its hooded head, smelling tongue and clouded eyes. It curled around his thoughts and flicked them into disarray. Euclid jabbed his finger into the sand, dragged it straight across the box, connecting one of his sister’s dots to another and abandoning the rest. He pulled his finger out again, and smoothed the sand on either side of the line he’d made. He leaned forward, his face close to the surface of the sand, and then he leaned back. Strange. Sensation. He felt his face with his fingertips and palms. It moved soft as shifting sand or dust and as though and as though and as though . “You’re smiling,” his sister said. 30 “Yes.” �Galaxy in a Flower - Nadine Bucca 31 �Essays Corruption at the Symposium How to Read Well The Galileo Affair The Nature of the Pilgrimage The Creation of the Self 32 �Contributors Sam Hage Siobhán Petersen Shirley Quo Noah Vancina Kyle Reynolds 33 �Corruption at the Symposium Sam Hage At the conclusion of the Symposium’s six speeches about Eros, the drunken Alcibiades interrupts the party with a crowd of attendants in tow. At the conclusion of Alcibiades’ speech, another, drunker crowd of revelers interrupts the party, sending things into confusion and signaling the end of Aristodemus’ narrative. Unlike Alcibiades’ initial entrance, which enables his long and rhapsodic depiction of Socrates—providing key biographical information found in only a handful of places in Plato—this second entrance seems to serve no discernible dramatic purpose. A small detail, however, included almost as an afterthought, may tell us a great deal. The second time around, the intruders find the door to Agathon’s house already open, because “someone had gone out.” We mustn’t suppose this detail is accidental; according to ancient anecdotes, Plato revised individual lines of his dialogues hundreds of times. What’s more, the preposterous custodial chain of the Symposium’s narrative is a clear indication of Plato’s own authorial hand at work. So who has left the party? And why does Plato wish for us to know? Once noticed, the first question is not difficult to answer: Alcibiades is still speaking or has just finished; Phaedrus and Erixymachus are mentioned as leaving right after this; Socrates, Agathon, and Aristophanes stay awake talking all night; Aristodemus is there to witness and narrate it all. Of the seven speakers, plus Aristodemus, Pausanias is the only one not explicitly mentioned. Unless this is a meaningless addition meant to refer to one of the unnamed speakers whom Aristodemus or Apollodorus forgot about, the only possibility is Pausanias. Why Plato should present us with this detail is a much greater question. Pausanias, we are told in the opening pages, is still hungover from last night’s festivities—but no reader will be satisfied to think he has left simply because he isn’t feeling well. More relevant is the fact that he has been witnessing his beloved, Agathon, flirt with the beautiful newcomer Alcibiades—and with Socrates from the very start of the party. Given that it is during Alcibiades’ speech that Pausanias finally storms out, it seems likely that 34 Alcibiades will provide us with the key to Plato’s lesson. �Without undertaking a tedious examination of Pausanias’ and Alcibiades’ speeches, we can at least observe some cursory points. Pausanias’ defense of Eros is highly unerotic; even the “highest” relationships are for him ultimately transactional. In truth, Eros is not defended at all, but instead undergoes a kind of technical scrutiny and classification. Pausanias’ bizarre focus on the jurisprudence of pederasty is especially startling in juxtaposition with Phaedrus’ emphasis on the tragic nobility of a lover’s self-sacrifice and Eryximachus’ rapturous elevation of Eros as the governing principle of the entire cosmos. His focus on the shameful is revealing: he seems rather ashamed of erotic relationships altogether. No character could be further opposed than that of the shameless and bombastic Casanova who delivers the evening’s unexpected epilogue. Whereas Socrates reveals the true nature of Eros properly understood, Alcibiades vividly illustrates the corruption that this philosophic attitude can sometimes leave in its wake. As a youth, Alcibiades has been partially won over by an appeal to wisdom; nonetheless, the conversion has not entirely succeeded. Plato’s dramatic art demonstrates the extreme care Socrates took in choosing to whom, and how, he disclosed his teachings. Socratic education does not admit of half measures, and a little learning is a dangerous thing. No doubt Socrates is not entirely to blame for the schizophrenic political career of a man with such unreformable erotic impulses. Nevertheless, many Athenians would have seen Alcibiades as a prime example of Socratic corruption. However strange his views of pederasty might seem to us, Pausanias, by contrast, is a spokesman for the conventional. His archetypal pederastic relationship exchanges the beauty of the body for the knowledge of a wise teacher. The lover possesses the good that is truth, and desires the beauty he lacks. Socrates recognizes the beauty of his own soul as superior to that of any mere body; he would never participate in this transaction. Socrates’ students instead come to recognize the beauty of his soul, and become his lovers instead. Plato offers us many indications that corruption is a theme of the Symposium. When Apollodorus is first approached by his unnamed companion in the dialogue’s opening lines, he reports that just the other day, Glaucon had asked to “question him closely” about the party where “Socrates, Alcibiades, and the others” made erotic speeches. 35 �The singular focus on Alcibiades is understandable, not only because of his prominent role in Athenian politics throughout the Peloponnesian War, but especially on account of suspicions that Socrates was somehow responsible for Alcibiades’ spectacular downfall. The party depicted in Plato’s dialogue occurred not long before the Sicilian expedition, Alcibiades’ recall, and his subsequent desertion to Sparta; the framing device at the start of the dialogue takes place just over a decade later—only a handful of years before Socrates’ trial. This offhand inclusion of Glaucon as Apollodorus’ interrogator is extremely notable: the evidence of this dialogue, in addition to that of other Platonic works, suggests that of all Socrates’ close associates, Glaucon in particular may have felt himself corrupted by Socrates’ tutelage. At the start of this dialogue we learn that “everything” is more important to Glaucon than philosophy. This might indicate that he now holds a conventional and suspicious view of Socrates’ way of life; moreover, it tells us that his concern with the details of the speeches at the party can’t possibly have been philosophical. How odd, indeed, that if he is so interested in the events of the drinking party, he did not simply consult Socrates himself. Glaucon’s importance is also signaled by similarities between the opening lines of the Symposium and the Republic, in which Glaucon is Socrates’ central interlocutor: both begin with the narrator “going up” to town, before being arrested by a combative acquaintance. In this case, the verb used by Apollodorus in the dialogue’s first line, πυνθάνεσθε (“I am not unprepared for what you ask about”), is in the second person plural—is he now being scrutinized by a group of inquisitors? Xenophon also wrote a dialogue called the Symposium, also with an unmistakable suggestion of the theme of corruption: Socrates is there depicted in the company of the beautiful youth Autolycus and his father, Lycon—one of Socrates’ accusers in his trial for corrupting the young. In general, Xenophon seems more willing than Plato to concede the reality of the corruption charge. He grants in the Memorabilia, first, that Socrates did indeed impart political skill to his associates and, second, that Alcibiades and Critias were among those associates. 36 �(It is often taken for granted that the ruination of these two supreme criminals was the real substance of Socrates’ indictment, but that because of the amnesty of 403, such a charge could not be made explicit.) Commentators have even pointed out that the Greek verb απομνημονεύω, from which the title Memorabilia is derived, can mean, in addition to simply “call to mind,” to “hold something against another”; not just “bear in mind,” but also “bear a grudge.” Just like Plato’s inclusion of the detail of the open door, Xenophon cannot possibly have placed Lycon among the banquet’s attendees by accident. He must wish for us to learn something about what would become Lycon’s motivations for accusing Socrates 23 years later. It is true that in Xenophon’s version of events, just as in Plato’s, Socrates subverts commonly accepted pederastic norms, urging both Callias and Critobulus to avoid sexual entanglements and to care only for the virtue of their young beloveds. But while disagreements like this might explain a frustrated lover’s early departure from a party, they can hardly provide motive for the prosecution of a capital crime. Besides, this chaste exhortation is exactly the kind of thing Lycon, the father of a handsome youth, would most wish to hear. Doubtless far more important, then, is the revelation that Autolycus was killed by the Thirty Tyrants after the Peloponnesian War. Did Lycon hold a particular grudge against Socrates for his role in Critias’ education, or associate him with Thirty’s rise? Did he blame Socrates for Autolycus’ being an “outspoken” member of the insurgent democratic faction, as Diodorus Siculus describes him? Beyond his putative influence on Critias, there is admittedly a strong case against Socrates as an opponent of democracy. Republicanism and the rule of law are presented a number of times in Plato’s dialogues as a “second sailing” to the rule of a wise statesman, and in the Republic, Kallipolis bears certain unmistakable similarities to Sparta and other monarchic or oligarchic regimes. Socrates’ theories about “intellectual despotism”—the belief that the wise alone hold a rightful claim to rule—could easily have been taken by men like Lycon to constitute support for actual despots. It is understandable that an embittered father could attribute some blame to Socrates, the famous political philosopher, for the power and brutality of the oligarchic Thirty 37 �Tyrants. It may not at first make sense that Lycon could also blame him for his son Autolycus’ membership in the coalition that resisted them. But Xenophon once again suggests the connection. Despite the fact that no reader of the dialogues could mistake Callias III of Alopece for a genuine follower of Socrates, the debaucherous grandee presents himself at the beginning of Xenophon’s Symposium as a devoted student of philosophy and a member of the Socratic circle. In Xenophon’s depiction of the party, Socrates exhorts Callias to a career in politics, and tells him the surest way to woo Autolycus is to make him more virtuous. Indeed, the theme of the evening’s conversation is introduced by the question of who can “make Autolycus better.” Socrates quickly warns the others that this is a dangerous topic, and should be put off to another time. It seems he was right: Callias’ unfortunate political career during the Peloponnesian War demonstrates a respect in which Autolycus chose the wrong mentor. Perhaps Lycon sees it thus: a follower of Socrates ensured Autolycus became an outspoken member of the losing side; a follower of Socrates caused the winning side to form a powerful, repressive oligarchy that put Autolycus to death. Socrates’ supposed intellectual despotism, it turns out, is not unconnected to his erotic innovations. In both Symposia, erotic attachment to the beautiful is supplanted by attraction to the good. This reorientation is of a piece with the typical Socratic line about deliberate action and human motivations: everyone is always pursuing what seems good to him, and wrongdoing is thus the result only of mistaken apprehension of the good. Human action, in other words, is to be understood in terms of a kind of self-interest; elevated self-interest perhaps, but self-interest nonetheless. To truly comprehend this outlook is to radically undermine traditional notions of noble virtue. If what it means to act deliberately is to act in accordance with a belief in one’s own good, how could beautiful sacrifice be possible? On this extreme Socratic view of human nature, the brave or noble person really thinks what he’s doing is best. Orpheus, Alcestis, and Phaedrus’ invincible regiment of male lovers would no longer deserve our admiration—not to mention pediatricians, special ed teachers, firemen, and 38 �Nobel Peace laureates. In teaching this doctrine, Socrates did something far more subversive than impugn the city’s religion. Most Athenians, in any case, seem to scorn literal belief in the gods: Euthyphro is openly ridiculed for his unusual fundamentalism. It was corruption of the young that carried the real weight in Socrates’ indictment, for which impiety was mere window dressing. Socrates has done something much worse than simply contravene the city’s religion; he has taken away its idols, and undermined the very basis for noble and heroic deeds. No wonder the city tries to kill him. We would, too. 39 �Nightmare - Nadine Bucca 40 �How to Read Well Siobhán Petersen How is it that I’m able to say that I’m not sure I ever read a book before I started the Program? Close reading – attending deeply to what is said, the way it was said, what it could mean – has never been a weakness of mine. Yet, something was still missing; some crucial engagement beyond merely what the author has put on offer that gets to the vitality of what our labors are all for. How do we facilitate a meaningful conversation with an inanimate object, how do we engage with ideas so renowned they’re practically cliché? If we decide the inexhaustibility we’re seeking in the Great Books actually comes from ourselves, can this teach us how to drink deeper from them? I offer some thoughts on how I’ve met that challenge. I On a pragmatic concern: I am a strong advocate of writing in our books. The best advice I ever got on annotation – after it was too late to help with my first semester, incidentally – was to not to try to make insights or observations in the margins, but rather to be indexing them for things I found interesting about it as I read. My margins are full of notes that just describe the action, like “Patroclus’ ghost;” running motifs specific to the text, like “synthetic judgment” or “The Moment;” and big ideas it might speak to, like “fate” or “death” or “divine justice.” i This makes it easy to find quotes in discussion, and come paper season, it’s so helpful to know what I was thinking about and where. I’ve turned my copy into a bespoke reference for textual evidence on every line of inquiry that matters to me. But more to the point, it helps me read deeper because it helps me return to the text as I think about it later on; it is perhaps only half of the experience to actually read and discuss, the other half is how you turn it over in your mind after. ii Beyond the practical value, I’d also advocate for an aesthetic value to the practice. Books are strange, fourth dimensional objects – they carry our thoughts forward in time. A thought is ephemeral; a body of them preserved against the passage of time is a text, and that can be as true for the reader as it is for the writer. Further, I am creating a shelf of artifacts of my life at St. John’s. What starts as a two-way conversation between the reader and the author becomes a trialogue, with the version of myself as a Master’s student participating too. Just as I feel privileged to see inside the head of people I care about when I read their annotated books, someone is likely to value these thoughts from this particular stretch of time of my life at some point in the future, even if that someone is only me. 41 �II I think what separates a lay reading and a close reading is a decision: to take nothing within a text as incidental. Every word was deliberately chosen for a particular effect; every tangent, every metaphor was considered in light of the whole. I take as axiom that no one writes anything because they want to say something – they do it because they need to say something. Whatever the author set out to express lies in the background of every small detail, so it pays to attend them with care. How do we attend to details that will enhance the discussion? I think that anything that sticks out to you is interesting. A particular use of language, a mention of something else you read, the way some pet interest of yours appears in a reading: I’ve seen some of the most profitable inquiries come out of someone’s peculiar observation. Someone offering their idiosyncratic take opens up vistas of thought that, definitionally, I could never have hoped to imagine myself. Ultimately (or with an eye to the Good Life, let’s say penultimately), we read to come ready to share; to me, this is what we call the “learning community.” No one else can give your perspective, and it’s our function as classmates in-community to offer it. i In trying to sort out the big picture, I think it’s valuable to remind myself – as anyone who’s written anything can probably relate to – I’ve never gotten to the end of any writing project and felt like I’d fully said everything I set out to. I try to leave space in the text for what the author perhaps couldn’t write. I think this is different from simply granting a charitable reading; I’m perhaps suggesting we can sometimes glimpse past the text if we look hard enough at the totality as well as the particularity: can see the forest and the trees. Whether we’re impressed with the picture we see is up to us, but given the choice between two readings, I try to default to the one that is most nuanced, human, interesting. ii Counterintuitively, what I’m not suggesting is a devotion to the author, nor their intended message. What I’ve found reading so many Great Texts birthed from Great Minds is that somewhere along the way I stopped reading to find out what Plato, or Descartes, or Dostoevsky thought; I only read to find out what I think. We talk about ourselves as “in conversation” with the books. Part of being a good conversationalist is to hold up your end of the discussion. Have your own thoughts! There’s a bit of a pressure-relief in realizing I can be nearly certain I can’t have a wholly original idea about texts so widely read, but that doesn’t mean we have to rely on cliché, or pre-made understandings. What does a text mean to you, right now? III In that spirit of the “now,” I’ll even go so far as to say it is okay to disinterpret a text to the end of creating the most interesting possible reading. “Disinterpretation” implies willfulness; we are free to develop accounts of the reading that run contrary to good sense, so long as we can support it with textual evidence. Put a quote in another context! Take one out of context! 42 �Are you unsatisfied with the answer the author provides, can you develop a more elegant account with what else they’ve said? i Even if you end up spiraling out or spinning the wheels; experimenting by analyzing, combining and recombining ideas from all over the canon, from your classmates, from your favorite novel will be a worthwhile skill to build in its own right. I try not to worry myself with the products of any of these experiments, nor do I try to disguise my experiments in-seminar as completed positions; the idea is to push every idea to its limits. I only ever want to be a better scientist. ii Partly, my decision to close-read is built on this disinterpretation; I can’t know for sure what was in the mind of the author when they selected any element, but I choose to read it otherwise, even if I’m wrong. I joyfully forfeit any spurious claim on the Necessary for a ground in the realm of the Aesthetic. If something seems to come out of nowhere based on everything you’ve previously understood about the work, it’s easy enough to disregard it as incidental, but far more worthwhile to examine it as vital, integral. Why might this be here? There’s no ambition to exactitude in “might,” only pliable openness. It is my firm opinion we are not here to be right about anything; we’re here to be wrong in interesting ways. 43 �Galileo and the Interaction between Religion and Science Shirley Quo Introduction Galileo’s Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems: Ptolemaic and Copernican (Dialogue) is one of the most important texts of the Copernican and Scientific revolution. It started the transition from the geocentric to a geokinetic worldview by means of interdisciplinary considerations based on Galileo’s new physics, observational evidence stemming from his telescopic discoveries and methodological principles including critical reasoning. The Dialogue is also noteworthy because it led to Galileo’s trial by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633. His book was banned and he was found guilty of ‘vehement suspicion of heresy’. This was because the Catholic Church believed that the Holy Scriptures supported the geocentric worldview i.e. that the sun revolved around the earth. To support a geokinetic worldview was therefore an act of heresy. These developments are known as the Galileo Affair. The purpose of this article is to examine the conflict between science and religion in the context of the Dialogue, the Galileo Affair and its aftermath. What, if any, is the role of religious authority and the Bible in scientific inquiry? The Geostatic Worldview The geostatic worldview assumed that the earth is spherical, motionless and that it is located at the center of the universe i.e. geocentric theory. Aristotle and Ptolemy were the two main contributors to this view of the universe. The old view considered that there was a fundamental division in the universe between the earthly and the heavenly regions and each region consisted of bodies with different properties and behavior. This is called the heaven-earth dichotomy. Terrestrial bodies occupied the central region of the universe below the moon, whereas heavenly bodies occupied the outer region from the lunar to the stellar sphere (the highest heaven or the firmament). Earthly bodies moved naturally straight toward (downward for earth and water) or away from the center of the universe (upward for air and fire), whereas celestial bodies (aether) moved circularly around the same center. 44 �Geometrically there were only two lines with the property that all parts are congruent with any other part – the circle and the straight line. Motion could be simple or mixed. Simple motion was motion along a straight line. Thus there were only two types of simple motion – straight and circular. Mixed motion was motion which is neither straight nor circular. There was a theoretical reason why upward and downward natural motions could belong to the same fundamental region of the universe but were essentially different from natural circular motion. This is the theory of change as contrariety according to which all change derives from contrariety and no change can exist where there is no contrariety. Contrarierty means opposites such as hot and cold, dry and humid. So up and down is a fundamental contrariety. This applies to terrestrial bodies which is full of qualitative changes e.g. birth, growth, generation, destruction etc. Circular natural motion of heavenly bodies by contrast have no contrary therefore it lacked an essential condition for the existence of change. Because no physical or organic or chemical changes were detected or observed in the heavens, it was claimed that the heavenly realm, unlike the terrestrial realm, was unchangeable, ingenerable, incorruptible etc. This provided the basis for the heaven-earth dichotomy. The Copernican System Copernicus published ‘On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres’ (Revolutions) in 1543. Unlike the old view, the stellar sphere was motionless and did not revolve around the earth with westward diurnal rotation. Instead, the diurnal rotation belonged to the earth, though its direction was eastward in order to result in the observational appearance of the whole universe rotating westward. This is called a geokinetic worldview. The earth was given a second motion, an orbital revolution around the sun with a period of one year, and also in an eastward direction. The annual motion was shifted from the sun to the earth thus making the earth a planet rather than the sun. This terrestrial orbital revolution meant that the earth was located off-center, the center being instead the sun. This is called a heliocentric worldview. 45 �Copernicus’s view was based on an idea proposed by the Pythagoreans in ancient Greece which had been rejected in favour of the Ptolemaic worldview. In Copernicus’s worldview, the earth moves by rotating on its own axis daily and by revolving around the sun once a year. It was a simpler and more coherent theory if the sun rather than the earth is assumed to be at the center and the earth is taken to be the third planet circling the sun yearly and spinning daily on its own axis. It had fewer moving parts than the geokinetic system because the apparent daily motion of all heavenly bodies around the earth is explained by the earth’s axial rotation and thus there is only one thing moving daily (the earth) rather than thousands of stars. There were also theological and religious objections. The biblical objection claimed that the idea of the earth moving is heretical because it contradicts many biblical passages stating or implying that the earth stands still.1 For example, Psalm 104:5 provides that the Lord “laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be removed for ever”. In Ecclesiastes 1:5, it provides that “the sun also riseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to the place where he ariseth” which seems to attribute motion to the sun and support the geostatic system. Another theological objection was based on the idea that God is all powerful – this may be called the divine omnipotence argument.2 This was endorsed by Pope Urban VIII during whose reign Galileo was tried and condemned. One version of this argument was that since God is all powerful, He could have created any one of a number of worlds e.g. one in which the earth is motionless. It was religiously heretical because it conflicted with Holy Scripture and the biblical interpretations of the Church Fathers and therefore undermined belief in an omnipotent God. The Galileo Affair In 1615, the Holy Office, or Roman Inquisition, asked its Inquisitors for an opinion on two propositions based on some formal complaints filed against Galileo in relation to the Copernican system:3 (1) the Sun is the centre of the world and completely immovable by local motion; and (2) the Earth is not the centre of the world nor immovable, but moves as a whole and also with a diurnal motion. 46 �The Inquisitors returned a unanimous opinion: (1) The first proposition was declared unanimously to be foolish and absurd in philosophy and formally heretical inasmuch as it expressly contradicts the doctrine of Holy Scripture in many passages, both in their literal meaning and according to the interpretation of the Fathers and learned theologians. (2) All were agreed that this proposition merits the same censure in philosophy and that, from a theological point of view, it is at least erroneous in the faith. In 1616, the Congregation of the Index issued a Decree declaring that the doctrine of the earth’s motion was physically false and contrary to Scripture; condemning and permanently banning Foscarini’s book, Letter on the Pythagorean Opinion, which had argued that the earth’s motion was probable and not contrary to Scripture; and temporarily prohibiting Copernicus’s Revolutions until and unless it was revised.5 Although Galileo was not mentioned at all in the Decree, he was given a warning in private. This warning exists in two versions. One is written on a certificate given to Galileo and signed by Cardinal Robert Bellarmine, who was an authoritative member of both the Congregation of the Index and of the Inquisition; it stated that Bellarmine had informed Galileo that the earth’s motion could not be held or defended. The second version is in an unsigned note written by a clerk and found in the file of Inquisition trial proceedings; it stated that the Commissary-General of the Inquisition gave Galileo the special injunction that he must not hold, defend, or discuss in any way the earth’s motion. Galileo claimed that he had never received the second version.6 Despite the warning given to him by the Catholic Church, Galileo published the Dialogue in 1632. The book was a discussion of the earth’s motion but took the form of a critical examination of all the arguments for and against the idea; the arguments on both sides were presented, analysed, and evaluated. The arguments for the earth’s motion turned out to be much stronger than those against it. This was an implicit defence of Copernicanism. However, Galileo believed that he had acted within the spirit of Bellarmine’s warning because it was only a hypothesis. 47 �In 1633, Galileo was brought to trial by the Inquisition on the charge that in his Dialogue, published in the previous year, he had disobeyed the injunction of 1616 and had defended the Copernican system, knowing it to be heretical. In the course of their judgment the Inquisitors twice reaffirmed that the system was heretical, in two slightly different forms. In the first place they recalled and quoted the judgment of 1616, citing it as evidence that it had already been duly examined and condemned. The Inquisitors then delivered their own verdict:7 “We say, pronounce, sentence and declare that you, the said Galileo... have rendered yourself, in the judgment of this Holy Office, vehemently suspected of heresy, namely of having believed and held the doctrine, which is false and contrary to the Sacred and Divine Scripture, that the Sun is the centre of the Earth and does not move from east to west, and that the Earth moves and is not the centre of the world, and that an opinion may be defended and held as probable after it has been declared and defined contrary to Holy Scripture.” According to one commentator, there is an interesting difference between the two statements.8 The Inquisitors in 1616 condemned as heretical the proposition that the Sun is the centre of the world (centro del mondo) and immovable; in 1633 they condemned as heretical the proposition that the Sun is the centre of the Earth (centro della terra) and does not move from east to west (i.e. does not move in a diurnal orbit around the Earth). What does this mean? Surely it cannot be taken to mean literally that the Sun is the centre of the Earth? Perhaps it means that it is the centre of the Earth’s orbit or, as in Copernicus’s own theory, the centre of the celestial sphere in which the Earth is embedded (which might be called ‘the Earth’ in an extended sense).9 As time went on, however, the situation changed. In the new theory, the fixed stars did not rotate and hence, it was no longer necessary for them to be held together in a rigid sphere. The whole system of rigid spheres could be abandoned. The universe need not be spherical, it could be any shape or even infinite. Even if it was a sphere there was no need for the Sun to be at its centre or immovable (for the whole planetary system might be in motion). 48 �Galileo was aware of this theory. In the Dialogue, Salviati, the advocate of the Copernican centre of the universe; if any centre may be assigned to the universe, we shall rather find the sun to be placed there, as you will understand in due course’.10 Galileo added this marginal note “The sun more probably at the centre of the universe than the earth.” In 1633, the Inquisition found Galileo “vehemently suspect of heresy” for holding and defending the thesis that the earth revolves around the sun and for thinking “that one may hold and defend as probable an opinion after it has been declared and defined contrary to the Holy Scripture”. The content of Galileo’s suspected heresy was two-fold. The first was an astronomical or cosmological claim about physical reality, which Galileo had supported and defended in the Dialogue. The second was a methodological principle or rule about how to proceed in the search for physical truth or the acquisition of natural knowledge i.e. the principle that Scripture is not an authority and may be disregarded as irrelevant in astronomy and natural philosophy. Galileo’s new telescopic evidence removed most of the observational-astronomical objections against the earth’s motion and added new evidence in its favor. Galileo believed not only that the geokinetic theory had greater explanatory coherence than the geostatic theory (as Copernicus had shown) and that it was physically and mechanically more adequate (as Galileo’s new physics suggested) but also that it was empirically and observationally more accurate in astronomy (as the telescope now revealed). His assessment was that the arguments for the earth’s motion were stronger than those for the earth being at rest; that Copernicanism was more likely to be true than the geostatic worldview. According to one argument, the view was developed during the Enlightenment that Galileo’s trial embodied the inherent incompatibility between science and religion, and later this view became widely accepted. The case of Galileo may be one of those where science and religion happened to be in conflict. Galileo’s trial does exhibit such a conflict if science is interpreted in that context as Copernicanism and religion as Scripture; for although Galileo believed and argued that Copernicanism is compatible with Scripture, the Catholic Church (through Bellarmine, Pope Urban VIII, the Index, and the Inquisition) claimed that Copernicanism is contrary to Holy Scripture. 49 �The conflict between science and religion is a striking feature of both the original and the subsequent Galileo affair: in the original episode in 1616, it takes the form of Copernicanism versus Holy Scripture; in the subsequent controversy in 1633, it takes the form that Galileo’s trial was widely perceived to epitomise the conflict between science and religion. Aftermath of the Galileo Affair The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: Though faith is above reason, there can never be any real discrepancy between faith and reason. Since the same God who reveals mysteries and infuses faith has bestowed the light of reason on the human mind, God cannot deny himself, nor can truth ever contradict truth. Consequently, methodical research in all branches of knowledge, provided it is carried out in a truly scientific manner and does not override moral laws, can never conflict with the faith, because the things of the world and the things of faith derive from the same God. The humble and preserving investigator of the secrets of nature is being led, as it were, by the hand of God in spite of himself, for it is God, the conserver of all things, who made them what they are. By 1939, Pope Pius XII was praising Galileo for being among the “most audacious heroes of research … not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of the funereal monuments.” Galileo was again mentioned with approval by Pope Pius XII in an address to the General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union in 1952, where he concluded his remarks saying: As so, friends, above and beyond the deep respect which we entertain for all the sciences and for yours in particular, this is yet another reason why we are moved to pray: may the science of astronomy, founded on the highest and most universal horizons, the ideal of so many great men in the past such as Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, continue to bear the fruit of marvellous progress and, through to the heartfelt collaborations promoted by such groups as the International Astronomical Union, bring the astronomical vision of the Universe to an ever deeper perfection. 50 In 1979, at a meeting of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences commemorating the centen �nial of Einstein’s birth, Pope John Paul II gave a speech in which he talked about the Galileo affair. The Pope admitted errors on the part of ecclesiastic individuals and institutions and acknowledged some wrongdoing on their part. He spoke of Galileo having been caused “suffering,” of his treatment as an instance of unwarranted interference into the autonomy of scientific research, and of the fact that the Second Vatican Council had “deplored” such interferences. From the point of view of the principles Galileo held regarding the relationship between science, religion and the Bible, Pope John Paul II spoke with unprecedented clarity and remarkable accuracy. In the 1979 Einstein centennial speech, the Pope said:17 He who is rightly called the founder of modern physics declared explicitly that the two truths, of faith and of science, can never contradict each other . . . The Second Vatican Council does not express itself otherwise. Pope John Paul II also issued a call for further studies of the Galileo affair that would be guided by three goals: bipartisan collaboration between the Galilean scientific side and the ecclesiastic religious side; open-mindedness to the wrongs of one side and the merits of the other side; and validation of the harmony between science and religion. Although the third goal was in some tension with the other two, it was the one closest to the Pope’s heart. For he argued that Galileo believed that science and religion are harmonious and that Galileo conducted his scientific research in the spirit of religious service and worship. Galileo also elaborated important epistemological principles about Scriptural interpretation, which correspond to the correct ones later clarified and formulated by the Catholic Church. The Pope wanted to reverse the traditional interpretation of Galileo’s trial as epitomising the conflict between science and religion. For Pope John Paul II, a key lesson from the Galileo affair is the need and importance of methodological pluralism i.e. the rule that different branches of knowledge call for different methods. This is what Galileo himself had advocated. In contrast, his theological opponents were committed to a misplaced cultural unitarianism that led them to fail to distinguish scriptural interpretation from scientific investigation and so to illegitimately transpose one domain into the other. 51 �Some commentators argue that the Inquisition was wrong to condemn Galileo since he preached and practiced the principle that scriptural passages should not be used in astronomical investigation, but only when dealing with questions of faith and morals. The Inquisition found this principle intolerable and abominably erroneous, and wanted to uphold the opposite principle that Scripture is a scientific authority, as well as a moral and religious one. On this question of theological and epistemological principle, Galileo was ultimately exculpated. In regard to the biblical issue, the main point of Galileo’s letters to Castelli and to Christina is that the literal interpretation of the Bible is binding only for questions of faith and morals and not for physical questions.18 Although in a sense this proposition can be accepted as true, it was regarded and was in fact singularly dangerous at that time. The most detailed description of how the Church views the interaction between religion and science can be found in a 1987 letter written by Pope John Paul II to Fr. George Coyne SJ, director of the Vatican Observatory. In this letter, he insisted on the equal value of science and religion:19 … both religion and science must preserve their autonomy and their distinctiveness. Religion is not founded on science nor is science an extension of religion. Each should possess its own principles, its pattern of procedures, its diversities of interpretation and its own conclusions. Science can purify religion from superstition; religion can purify science from false absolutes. Each can draw the other into a wider world, a world in which both can flourish. The Pope also argued that this dialogue was essential to progress within science itself, a theme which Pope Francis would later develop in Laudato Si’:20 … science develops best when its concepts and conclusions are integrated into the broader human culture and its concerns for ultimate meaning and value. Scientists … can also come to appreciate for themselves that these discoveries cannot be a genuine substitute for knowledge of the truly ultimate. And in 1992, at the conclusion of his inquiry, the Pope had not changed his mind in this regard but reaffirmed the point with these words: 52 �“Paradoxically, Galileo, a sincere believer, showed himself to be more perceptive in this regard than the theologians who opposed him . . . The majority of theologians did not recognize the formal distinction between Sacred Scripture and its interpretation, and this led them unduly to transpose into the realm of the doctrine of the faith a question that in fact pertained to scientific investigation. Moreover, from the Galileo affair . . . another lesson we can draw is that the different branches of knowledge call for different methods . . . The error of the theologians of the time when they maintained the centrality of the earth was to think that our understanding of the physical world’s structure was in some way imposed by the literal sense of Sacred Scripture.” The Galileo myth claims that Galileo was not condemned for his astronomical conclusion that the earth moves, but for his theologically unsound practice of supporting an astronomical view with biblical passages.22 This explanation is untrue because Galileo preached and practiced the opposite principle that Holy Scripture should not be used to support physical propositions. This myth seems to have acted as a catalyst for the subsequent Galileo affair to become the cause celebre it is today. Commentary As Galileo put it, quoting Cardinal Baronius, “The intention of the Holy Ghost is to teach us how one goes to heaven, not how the heavens go.” Galileo added the following note in the preliminary leaves of his own copy of the Dialogue: “Take note, theologians, that in your desire to make matters of faith out of propositions relating to the fixity of sun and earth you run the risk of eventually having to condemn as heretics those who would declare the earth to stand still and the sun to change position – eventually, I say, at such time as it might be physically or logically proved that the earth moves and the sun stands still.” Galileo rejected the conception of the center of the universe which deprived the justi 53 �fication for the idea of the immovable earth. Following Copernicus, Galileo set forth the advantages of assuming the sun to be at rest. It is simpler to assume a rotation of the earth around its axis than a common revolution of all fixed starts around the earth. The assumption of a revolution of the earth around the sun makes the motions of the inner and outer planets appear similar and does away with the troublesome retrograde motions of the outer planets, or rather explains them by the motion of the earth around the sun.These arguments are convincing but are only of a qualitative nature i.e. since humans are tied to the earth, our observations will never directly reveal to us the “true” planetary motions but only the intersections of the lines of sight (earth-planet) with the fixed star sphere. Galileo demonstrated that the hypothesis of the rotation and revolution of the earth is not refuted by the fact that we do not observe any mechanical effects of these motions. However, this misled him into formulating a wrong theory of the tides. Galileo’s work represents the passionate fight against any kind of dogma based on authority. Only experience and careful reflection are accepted by him as criteria of truth. In Galileo’s time, this was a revolutionary concept. Merely to doubt the truth of opinions which had no basis but authority was considered a capital crime and punished accordingly. This is one of the reasons that Galileo is considered to be the father of modern science. The Dialogue is the book which historically did the most toward breaking down the religious and academic barriers against free scientific thought. As Einstein said, ‘the leitmotif which I recognise in Galileo’s work is the passionate fight against any kind of dogma based on authority’. Galileo’s works were not removed from the Catholic Church’s prohibited list until 1741 by Pope Benedict XIV. The Inquisitions of Galileo Galilei between 1615 and 1633 highlighted the Catholic Church’s interpretation of the role of tradition. In that time, the Church was facing the fact that Copernican heliocentrism was better able to predict planetary motion than biblical tradition. Galileo has also been celebrated as a figure of valor to the scientific community because the Dialogue pulled no punches in mocking the then Pope Urban VIII. Galileo allegedly used direct quotes in the Dialogue and attributed them to a character called Simplicio. What is less appreciated however, is that Galileo agreed that the natural world could not be in contradiction with the faith that he maintained his whole life. 54 �Conclusion The moon is 40 million years older than we thought, according to a new analysis of lunar samples collected by Apollo astronauts a half-century ago. This research looked at moon dust brought back by the Apollo 17 mission in 1972, the last time humans set foot on the surface. The results, published in the journal Geochemical Perspectives Letters, suggest it must be at least 4.46 billion years old and that it could have formed as long as 4.51 billion years ago. “It’s important to know when the moon formed”, Professor Philipp Heck of the Field Museum in Chicago, senior author of the study, said, “(because) the moon is an important partner in our planetary system – it stabilises the Earth’s rotational axis, it’s the reason there are 24 hours in a day, it’s the reason we have tides. Without the moon, life on Earth would look different. In the Dialogue, Galileo argued that the tides are caused by the compounding motion of the earth as a conclusive proof of heliocentrism. Despite this error, the Dialogue remains one of the most important texts of the Scientific revolution. The Galileo affair illustrates that changing scientific paradigms caused increasing problems for religious doctrines that had been reconstructed according to the scientific knowledge of earlier times. It has been claimed that science and religion constitute “non-overlapping magisteria” whereby science pertains to the empirical realm of facts and religion to ultimate meaning and moral value.28 From the late nineteenth century, free inquiry came to encompass the study of religion itself. Emile Durkheim, a prominent social scientist, defined religion as “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden.” This assumes conflict whenever scientists attempt to study sacred things “set apart and forbidden” and in so doing, challenge religious prohibitions. Today, stem cell research invokes some of the same deep-seated religious prohibitions as heliocentrism once did. 55 �Mind in a Fog - Nadine Bucca 56 �The Nature of the Pilgrimage: The Meaning of Springtime in The Canterbury Tales Noah Vancina “Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages” (12)—why now, and whence the longing? Before he even arrives at the human subjects of his tale of pilgrimage, all described in the General Prologue, Chaucer, as an “introduction” to the General Prologue, gives the sweetest description of springtime, which evokes already in the hearer the longing for the peaceful time he describes. Let us go on our own pilgrimage to seek how Chaucer awakes this longing, and how we might then be ready to join the pilgrims as “to Caunterbury they wende.” Chaucer begins by providing a context for pilgrimages: “whan” (1). “When” is a temporal description that is precise or imprecise, depending on what follows. What follows must be some event, identifiable such that the time, the “when” of the sought-after occurrence, appears. Yet, Chaucer draws out his “whan” for eleven lines, one great dependent clause, in which he lists multiple conditions before the long-desired “thanne” arrives. Even these conditions, though, remain imprecise: “Whan that Aprille with his shoures soote/The droughte of March hath perced to the roote/And bathed every veyne in swich licour/Of which vertu engendred is the flour” (1-4); at what moment have all these things come to pass? Rain falls gradually, only in drops, and slowly it soaks into the earth, uprooting the drought that preceded. So likewise the blowing of the zephyr until it reaches and warms end of every damp wood. Thus, the awaited fulfillment is an atmosphere, not a moment, in which pilgrimages begin. With these descriptions, Chaucer evokes a dawning awareness, a longing that does not come all at once and overwhelm but that grows like the fitful entrance of springtime and the growth of young shoots, like the passing away of sickness and the coming of full health. Chaucer presents meteorological events not exactly as personified, but yet as intentional and moving towards a goal. April, with “his” sweet showers, as if the showers belonged to April (as opposed to “April’s” showers, which feels more distant), who brought them with the intention of ending the drought and bringing the moisture needed for the flowers. The zephyr and the sun, too, play a part with “sweete breethe” and a “cours” to run. This almost personification suggests that natural phenomena act in the world as more than dumb happenings. 57 �Each verb, too, is loaded with intentions. April’s showers pierce the drought of March (2). Not a simple statement of cause and effect in nature, “pierce” suggests attack, an intentional breaking through as if much depends on not being repelled. The next line reveals the goal: to “bathe[] every veyne in . . . licour” (3), that life be not hindered. The zephyr then inspires the “tendre croppes” (5-7) as if it had breath to share, or the shoots could receive spirit. When Chaucer arrives at the birds, no change of language is necessary. One might even say that the verbs applied to the birds, “maken” and “slepen,” are the least suggestive of life, although birds are the most obviously conscious of the characters so far. Curious also is the peacefulness suggested by Chaucer’s diction. The showers are “soote” (1), the zephyr’s breath is “sweete” (3), the shoots are “tendre” (7), and the birds are “smale” (9). Everything in this springtime bespeaks gentleness and peace. Only against the intruder is any harsh word said, for the “droughte of March” is “perced” to the root (2): the drought being an unwelcome condition that would forestall the coming of spring and, perhaps, also of pilgrimage. It is in this verdant time, teeming with life, that men long to go on pilgrimages. Now why at a time when everything seems so right with the world would men desire change rather than rest? We find a suggestion in a line that sits right between the dependent clause description of springtime and the independent clause discussion of pilgrimage: “So priketh hem nature in hir corages” (11). Of whose hearts is Chaucer speaking? It may seem natural, as the immediate antecedent, to think that the birds are meant, who make melody and sleep with open eyes due to nature’s influence. But could it not be looking ahead as well, to the folk who long to go on pilgrimages? Even the rhyme scheme would couple “hir corages” with “pilgrimages.” Line 11, situated close to the midpoint of this introduction to the General Prologue and at the meeting of the dependent and independent clauses, joins weather, plants, animals, and humans in the influence of nature on their thoughts and actions. What kind of nature incites men to longing? Two meanings of “nature” seem possible: the inherent constitution of a creature or the creation itself. But perhaps neither meaning is really distinctive. If nature is understood the first way, Chaucer is saying that something within man stirs him up in the springtime, in reaction to what it perceives around it. If the second way, creation in springtime moves man to longing. 58 �Chaucer points to the importance of the natural world in either case, leading us to wonder why springtime would cause such feelings in human beings. There is, first, a correspondence between the creation emerging from winter and a man recovering from sickness. Chaucer lavished attention on explicating the blooming flowers, the tender shoots, and the centrality of the sun, but these conditions or incitements for longing are only linked to humans with a “thanne,” the termination of the dependent clause. Nevertheless, the pilgrims on the road to Canterbury are seeking a saint who helped them recover from sickness. The parallel is evident, though human convalescence is not described so lyrically. It has already been described through springtime. But more darkly seen is a lack in men out of which rises this longing. Before nature, with its wholeness and life, man is disturbed. The showers do not enliven him; the wind does not warm him. Or not primarily. Man stands across from a natural world that seems as conscious as he. He longs, and so he leaves his familiar home, sometimes to go to foreign lands. Still, what is the lack, the source of longing? As has been said, those pilgrims that go to Canterbury have been healed from sickness. Wholeness there; so we would have to say those pilgrims are responding to wholeness, not to want. Thus, man at his best state would still not possess something of which he is made aware by springtime. The conceit behind Chaucer’s tales suggests that this want is filled by fellowship. Plurality is present throughout the introduction: “every” vein is bathed by the rain, “every” wood and field is inspired by the zephyr, and multiple “foweles” sing. As emphasized to by the loading of all these plurals into a dependent clause, these plurals are bound together, as if joining one another in a festival of spring. Thus, people who recover out of the loneliness of sickness (or whatever separates them from others) find in springtime the inspiration to join fellowship on pilgrimages. The newness of spring incites men to seek new acquaintances, new sights, and new experiences. We see how Chaucer (or whoever the narrator may be) embarks on his pilgrimages alone but quickly seeks out, and is accepted into, the company of other pilgrims (19-34). Men desire to mirror the character of the season around them. They participate in this way not solely with creation, but with each other, each individual being drawn out of himself and into a community. 59 �Of course, we should not force Chaucer to say that he has described all people in springtime or even all who go on pilgrimages, just as not every springtime is as consistently idyllic as the one represented in the General Prologue. What Chaucer does offer is insight into human nature, seasons, and pilgrimage. The wholeness found in a beautiful springtime does incite longing in the human heart, but not a longing of despair or unrequited passion. Instead, it draws people together into communities of thanks—for to this end Chaucer’s pilgrims wend to Canterbury. While it may be less common now to make a pilgrimage of the kind Chaucer describes, springtime can still create longing in our hearts and, now that we better understand what it means, we are better prepared to meet our own longing “to goon on pilgrimages.” 60 �The Creation of the Self: Shakespeare and Aristotle Kyle Reynolds It might seem self-evident that Prince Hal undergoes a significant change in character throughout Shakespeare’s Henry IV. His character is first introduced as a drunken degenerate ne’er-do-well. Yet, by the end of Part One, Hal has redeemed himself in the eyes of his father and is hailed as a hero. This does not necessarily signify a change in character though, only a change in his conduct. One does not need to be virtuous to act virtuously. As Plato’s Ring of Gyges allegory demonstrates, the utilitarian benefits of acting justly are often enough to compel just behavior. Still, perhaps a change in conduct is enough to result in a genuine change in character, even if this result is unintended. This begs the question, does Hal’s character truly change and does he become a more virtuous man? Hal’s first soliloquy, spoken to the audience after the prince agrees to join his comrade Poins in a plot to embarrass their friend, Falstaff, provides some critical insight on this question. Shakespeare uses this soliloquy to help elucidate Hal’s intentions and provide an explanation for his behavior. The prince tells us he is seeking to “imitate the sun / Who doth permit the base contagious clouds / To smother up his beauty from the world, / That, when he please again to be himself, / Being wanted, he may be more wond’red at” (Shakespeare 15). If the prince is to be believed then, his juvenile and dishonorable behavior is all in service to a grand façade. By shirking his duties and ensuring he is perceived as worthless and reprehensible throughout the kingdom, Hal is tempering the expectations of his subjects, his father, and his peers. So, when he does finally cast off this façade, his redemption and reformation “shall show more goodly and attract more eyes”. However, it’s not clear that Hal’s behavior is merely a façade. He seems to thoroughly enjoy taking part in the debauchery perpetrated by his dishonorable cohort. Take the dialogue directly preceding Hal’s soliloquy for example. Hal is at first weary of Poins’s scheme to prank the unsuspecting Falstaff. To convince the prince, Poins offers the prophetic argument, “[t]he virtue of this jest will be the incomprehensible lies that this same fat rogue will tell us when we meet for supper: how thirty, at least, he fought with; what wards, what blows, what extremities he endured; and in the reproof of this lives the jest”. 61 �Hal, now convinced, responds, “[w]ell, I’ll go with thee. Provide us all things necessary and meet me tomorrow night in Eastcheap. There I’ll sup. Farewell” (Shakespeare 14). It is the prospect of humiliating Falstaff and catching him in his lies and exaggerations that finally compels Hal to join Poins’s plan. There does not appear to be any utilitarian benefit for Hal in joining Poins. His willingness to go along with the prank seems best explained by a genuine and wholly ignoble desire to humiliate Falstaff. Hal’s reactions to Falstaff’s all too predictable lies concerning the prank only a few scenes later serve to further illustrate this point. Falstaff begins to eagerly, and inaccurately, recount his ordeal to Hal and Poins, telling them of the men who robbed him of his stolen gold, entirely unaware of the fact that those men were in fact Hal and Poins. Almost immediately, Falstaff begins to, in a rather obvious manner, increase the number of his attackers, for which Hal derides him, saying, “O monstrous! Eleven buckram men grown out of two!” (Shakespeare 47). Falstaff, surprisingly unphased by the prince’s derisions, continues with his fictional account of the “battle” and Hal continues with his mockeries. Finally, after Falstaff becomes wholly indignant due to Hal picking apart every aspect of his tale, the prince tells Falstaff the truth, stating: “We two set on you four and, with a word, outfaced you from your prize, and have it; yea, and can show it you here in the house. And, Falstaff, you carried your guts away as nimbly, with as quick dexterity and roared for mercy, and still run and roared, as ever I heard a bullcalf. What a slave art though to hack thy sword as though hast done, and then say it was in a fight! What trick, what starting hole canst thou now find out to hide thee from this open and apparent shame?” Every action Hal has taken and every word he has spoken in this scene seems to have been aimed at maximizing Falstaff’s embarrassment. If this is simply a part Hal is playing, such intricate scheming would be unnecessary. However, if Hal truly is morally degenerate and elicits genuine joy from poking fun at and participating in the schemes of his corrupt and contemptible crew, then his behavior makes a great deal more sense. Hal’s so called “reformation” begins in earnest when he confronts his father and pledges to fulfill his duties as a prince of the realm. 62 �He tells the king, “So please your Majesty, I would I could / Quit all offenses with as clear excuse / As well as doubtless I can purge / Myself of many I am charged withal” . The king rejoices at this news, but is, at first, skeptical. Hal reassures him, promising to “[b]e more”. Hal appears to honor his commitment, marching off to battle against a rebel force, to the astonishment of his enemies. Percy Hotspur, the leader of the rebels, inquires as to the statues of Hal and his forces, asking, “Where is … [t]he nimble-footed madcap Prince of Wales”. His cousin, Vernon, replies: “All furnished, all in arms; / All plumed like estridges that with the wind / Bated like eagles having lately bathed; / Glittering in golden coats like images; / As full of spirit as the month of May / And gorgeous as the sun at midsummer; / Wanton as youthful goats, wild as young bulls. / I saw young Harry with his beaver on, / His crushes on his thighs, gallantly armed, / Rise from the ground like feathered Mercury, And vaulted with such ease into his seat / As if an angel dropped down from the clouds / To turn and wind a fiery Pegasus / And witch the world with noble horsemanship”. Hal has, at least in the eyes of his enemy, become an entirely different person. He is no longer seen as the “madcap Prince of Wales,” but is instead viewed as a gallant warrior. Hal has done little except show up to the battle, yet, Vernon offers him some of the most striking and sincere praise seen throughout the play. At this point, the reformation Hal prophesized seems to be coming to pass. Hal is executing his plan and those around him are taking note. However, Hal’s plan is to simply feign virtue so as to be better looked upon by those in his kingdom. He is only interested in the utilitarian benefits of being perceived as virtuous. Yet, after the conclusion of the battle with Hotspur’s forces, Hal takes an action which appears entirely inconsistent with this philosophy. Falstaff falsely tells Hal and his brother, John, that he had killed Hotspur. Hal responds, truthfully, “[w]hy, Percy I killed myself”. This, of course, does not stop the invariably deceitful Falstaff from arguing that his account of Hotspur’s death is accurate, going so far as to threaten to make anyone who doubts him “eat a piece of [his] sword” (Shakespeare 114). Hal, despite knowing the falsehood of Falstaff’s claims, agrees to allow him to take credit for the killing of Hotspur, saying, “if a lie may do thee grace, / I’ll gild it with the happiest terms I have”. 63 �While it’s not entirely clear why Hal chooses to let Falstaff persist in his lie, it seems to come from a genuine desire to see Falstaff improve himself and his circumstances, which Falstaff commits to do only a few lines later. There doesn’t appear to be any benefit to Hal in allowing Falstaff to claim the glory and honor associated with killing Hotspur. Hal’s motivations are instead altruistic in nature and demonstrative of true virtue. Despite deciding to reform himself in the eyes of those around him, Hal is unable to entirely forgo his old ways. Much to the dismay of his father, Hal continues to associate with Poins, Falstaff, and his other sinful companions. When the king learns that Hal is back in London with his band of scoundrels, he laments; “Most subject is the fattest soil to weeds, / And he, the noble image of my youth, / Is overspread with them. Therefore my grief / Stretches itself beyond the hour of death. / The blood weeps from my heart when I do shape / In forms imaginary th’ unguided days / And rotten times that you shall look upon / When I am sleeping with my ancestors. / For when headstrong rage and hot blood are his counselors, / When means and lavish manners meet together, / O, with what wings shall affections fly / Towards fronting peril and opposed decay!” The king is deeply afraid that Hal cannot truly reform and will ultimately succumb to his rage and other vices which will destroy him. Finally, at the conclusion of Part Two, Hal ultimately casts of his old habits and comrades. In a cutting and markedly harsh speech directed at Falstaff, the prince announces: “I know thee not, old man. Fall to thy prayers. / How ill white hairs becomes a fool and jester! / I have long dreamt of such a kind of man, / So surfeit-swelled, so old, and so profane, / But, being awaked, I do despise my dream. / Make less thy body hence, and more thy grace. / Leave gormandizing. Know the grave doth gape / For thee thrice wider than other men. / Reply not to me with a fool-born jest. / Presume not that I am the thing I was, / For God doth know, so shall the world perceive, / That I have turned away my former self. / So will I those that kept me company”. The way Hal speaks of his transformation makes it sound not as if he is simply put 64 �ting on a different mask but as if he has truly undergone a metamorphosis of spirit. He likens his reformation to wakening from a bad dream, a dream he now despises. So, although Hal may not have meant to undergo a genuine change in character, he did. His actions make clear that he was a morally corrupt degenerate that enjoyed taking part in the activities of his London gang. Then, he undergoes a reformation, which may have at first simply been an act, but ultimately results in a changed character capable of committing acts of altruism. Hal does seem to waver in his new convictions, returning to the London tavern to fraternize with Poins and Falstaff, but finally lets his old wayward acquaintances go. But why does Hal undergo this change in character? Perhaps Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics can provide some insight. Aristotle tells us: “oral virtue comes about as a result of habit, whence also its name (ethike) is one that is formed by a slight variation from the word ethos (habit). From this it is also plain that none of the moral virtues arises in us by nature; for nothing that exists by nature can form a habit contrary to its nature. … Neither by, then, nor contrary to nature do the virtues arise in us; rather we are adapted by nature to receive them, and are made perfect by habit”. Hal lived a life of vice and did not create a habit of virtue. He thus became sinful and devoid of moral integrity. Hal then began to act virtuously. Eventually, acting ethically became habitual. However, habits are engrained on the soul and Hal struggled to overcome his past transgressions. Though, finally, a new, virtuous Hal was created through the prince’s actions. For, the self is formed by our habits, and Hal is no different. 65 �Translation On the Creation of Man 66 �Contributor Stephen Cunha 67 �On the Creation of Man By Wolfgang Musculus Translation by Stephen Cunha Now, accordingly, in proper order, we proceed to consider the work of God in the creation of man: which consideration must be understood, not only to be next after those things which we have noted concerning God the maker of all things, but also to especially concern man. For what is more properly suitable for man than, after his creator, to understand himself? We are drawn to this knowledge not only by that which Lactantius somewhere puts into words, “Great is the power of man, great his reason, great his mystery, so that not undeservedly Plato gave thanks to nature, because he was born a human being”—yes indeed, because next to God nothing is more sublime than man, nothing more excellent has been made;3 but also because no small portion of our salvation requires this, that we know ourselves, wherein even those who have everywhere inculcated the saying γνωθε σεαυτόν, that is, “know thyself,” as if it had dropped down from heaven, have admonished that the greatest part of wisdom is found. But who does not know that it is especially required for the knowledge of man, that we should not be ignorant of the origin and making of mankind? And the Holy Spirit has described the creation of man with singular care and greater diligence than all other created things in the Sacred Scriptures, undoubtedly for this purpose, that even from the origin of our race, we might be reminded that when God made man, he wanted to create a certain remarkable work, which would be much more outstanding, and would much more closely approach the glory of his divinity, than the rest of creation; and in the next place, that the knowledge of our beginning might be very much conducive to the consideration of divine wisdom, goodness, and power, and contain, as it were, some principles of heavenly philosophy. And I also think that some parameters of knowledge are required, so that we do not extend our consideration beyond those things that are able to advance Christian godliness. What should be thought by the godly person concerning the creation of man cannot be better determined than from the instruction of the Holy Spirit, which Sacred Scripture sets forth to us. For the mind of man has been so darkened, that he is able to judge rightly neither of his maker nor of himself. For this reason, man must take care to search for the things that ought to be known, and held with certainty, not only concerning man himself but also concerning God his creator, from the Sacred Scriptures rather than from human opinion. And those things which have been handed down in the Sacred Scriptures, having rejected all curiousness, are so composed, that they are adapted to both our capacity and our benefit. They are moderate, but solid, certain, profitable, necessary, and harmonious. Therefore, concerning the creation of man, this is related to us in few words in Genesis chapters one and two. First, that man is a work, just as all other created things. He was made in time; he did not exist before time. Indeed, if we consider the time of our beginning, which Sacred Scripture also reveals, every creature is more ancient than man. Now everything which has been made does not exist on account of itself, but by reason of another source. And just as 68 it does not exist from itself, so whatever it has, it does not have from itself, but from the one by �69 �whom it was made. Nor when it was made, was it able to cause itself to be made different, either better or worse, than what it was made according to the will of its maker. On the contrary, it has not even contributed in the smallest degree to become what it has been made. Accordingly, it should be observed concerning man, that since he also, just like the rest of creation, was made, all that he is and all that he has (in terms of natural abilities), depended on the will, wisdom, and power of his maker. Second, since the very consideration that we have been made immediately leads us forward to become acquainted with our maker, we next inquire about the maker and creator of man. Sacred Scripture attributes the creation of man to the same One by whom all other things were made. It says, “God created man.”The books of the Gentiles say concerning a certain Prometheus, the father of Deucalion, that he first formed man. And he did not form man, but the image of man from clay: for which reason he is also the author of the art of molding. We acknowledge that the maker of our race is the only and true God, who made heaven and earth, and all the things which are in them, visible and invisible, and so we confess that whatever we are and whatever we have is from him. Moreover, it is properly required that in all things we depend on him alone, as the creature on his creator. Israel is reproached in the Mosaic and prophetic books because it abandoned its maker. And God himself cries out, saying: “I made you.” Wherein it is sufficiently demonstrated how perverse the heart of man is, to such an extent that he forsakes his own maker, God. Furthermore, we are admonished by this knowledge, since we all have the same creator and maker, lest any man find fault with his work, either in himself or in others, saying: “Why did he make me like this?” In Isaiah chapter forty-five we read as follows: “Woe to him who speaks against his maker, a potsherd among the potsherds of the earth. Shall the clay say to its potter, ‘What are you making?’” And in Proverbs chapter fourteen we read: “He who finds fault with a poor man, reproaches his maker.”Therefore, that faith by which we believe that we have been created by God, will work these three things in our hearts. First, that in all things we depend with our whole heart on God our creator. Second, that each man is content with how he has been created, and even embraces it with thanksgiving, for which he has been made by God the creator. Third, that no one looks down on how his neighbor has been made, however base and lowly, lest he dishonors in him their common creator. In the third place, the Sacred Scriptures are not silent about this, of what man was made. In Genesis chapter two we read the following, “Therefore, the Lord God formed man from the dust of the earth, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living creature.” In Hebrew it is, ‫המדאה ןמ רפע‬. Notice the material from which man was made. And what is baser, what is poorer and more unstable, than the dust of the ground, from which not even bricks can properly be made? He could at least have been made from solid earth. This origin of our race warns us all, that in consideration of it we maintain modesty, lest it be said to us: “Why are you prideful, O earth and ashes?” For what other assessment is to be made of that, which is made from dust? The Holy Spirit could have said, “The Lord God formed man from the ground,” or “from the dust”: but in order to inculcate the lowliness of man, he called man, made from dust, “the dust of the earth.” And what did God say to Adam? “Dust you are, and to dust you will return.” He did not simply say, “you are 70 �71 �from dust,” but “you are dust.” Lest the flesh should say, “So what that I am from dust? Whatever I came from, I am now a human being, and am not dust”; the sentence of God our maker comes to us, saying: “And from dust you are, and dust you still are, and to dust you will return,” just as if you were to say to a magnificent glacier: “And water you were, and water you are, and to water you will return.” In the fourth place, the way in which the first man was made is read in the Sacred Scriptures. We read the following in Genesis chapter two: “Therefore, the Lord God formed man, from the dust of the earth, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living creature.”11 By the verb “formed,” the Holy Spirit expresses the singular diligence put into the creation of man. Second, in order to describe what material God formed, when he built man, he adds: “dust of the earth.” Third, he adds, “and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life,” by which words he teaches us how the figure of the human body, first formed from the dust, and still inanimate, was made animate and living. His maker poured into him spirit and breath (for in the Hebrew it is ‫ )םייח תמשנ‬from which he would live, and so he was made into a living soul: that is, he began to live, a man now animated, who before was dust and inanimate. Thus, the things concerning the first man Adam. And how Eve was subsequently made, is in the same chapter read in this way: “The Lord God sent a deep sleep on Adam. And while he slept, he took out one of his ribs, and replaced the flesh over it. And the Lord God built the rib, which he had taken from Adam, into a woman, and brought her to Adam. And Adam said, ‘This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh. She is called woman, since she was taken out of man.’” In both cases, the singular purpose and care that God used in the creation of man is sufficiently intimated. And yet, in like manner, we are permitted to see how the Holy Spirit describes in three words the wonderful way man was formed—wherein the body together with its members, both internal and external, such as bones, veins, cartilage, vertebrae, muscles, joints, and limbs were most harmoniously fashioned, put together, and adorned, and then vivified by the infusion of the soul—when he says, “he formed,” “he built,” and “he breathed [inspired].” And in this way, he restrains our curiosity, which is itching to know each of these things, how, by what industry, by what strength, and in what space of time it was accomplished, admonishing us to reverently hold fast to those things imparted in few words, and to acknowledge and honor God our maker. In the fifth place, it is also taught in the Sacred Scriptures, what kind of man was made. With respect to the figure of the body of both, male and female, its stature, and the fitting together of the body and soul, it is in itself plain, of what constitution we have been made. But as for clearly perceiving the nature and dignity of man, since both have been corrupted, and deprived of their original quality, of what kind both were in the first man, we are not able to know, unless the Holy Spirit speaks of and teaches it to us. And I do not understand in this place by quality of nature the bodily necessities and affections, in which we are still subjected, but that original quality of rectitude, which it is read that God imparted to the first man in Ecclesiastes chapter seven. For Ecclesiastes says the following, “I have found this only, that God made man ‫[ רשי‬that is, upright].” This is not to be un 72 �73 �derstood of the uprightness of the body, but of the soul, which men call original righteousness, and which comprises the knowledge of God the creator, obedience, faith, love toward both God and one’s neighbor, and the freedom of an upright will, together with other adornments of that nature. Therefore, when the first man by nature was made such—namely, upright, not only in body, but also in soul—he possessed free will in such a way, that he was able to obey God, if he wanted: and, on the other hand, he was able to sin, if he wanted. For however upright and free to do good he was made, nevertheless, at the same time, he differed from the angels in this, that he was able to be tempted by inordinate affections, and consent to them, and be led away from the rectitude of original righteousness. This does not have a place in those angels who, since the fall of the reprobate spirits, have remained in the truth of God. The Sacred Scriptures also testify concerning the dignity of the first man, when they teach that he was made in the likeness and image of God. God says in Genesis chapter one, “Let us make man in our own image and likeness, and let him rule over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over every living creature on the earth, and over every creeping thing that moves on the earth. And God created man in his image and in his likeness, in the image of God he created him,” and the things which follow in that place. Most ancient and contemporary authors expound the dignity of man as uprightness of nature, of which we have made mention, so that the image of God was what separated man from the beasts, by reason and by the internal integrity of man which more nearly resembled the divine nature, wisdom, and righteousness. But although that exposition is not to be altogether discarded, it is nevertheless clear from the very words of Sacred Scripture that man was so made in the image of God, that he should be like God on the earth, and have all things placed under his feet. For what else is being said where it reads, “And God created man in his image and likeness,” than what follows, “in the image of God he created him”? In Hebrew it is ‫םלצב‬ ‫םיהלא‬. And to be created in the image of God, is to be constituted like a certain God. Whence, magistrates and rulers are in the Scriptures called ‫םיהלא‬: that is, “gods” and “mighty ones.” And this image of God granted to man does not exclude the internal uprightness of man, which is so necessary for the former to be retained, that without it a ruler differs nothing from a savage beast, except perhaps that he employs more subtlety and cunning in carrying out the malice of his tyranny. This understanding of human dignity, according to which man is made in the image of God, was plainly set forth by Chrysostom in his exposition of Genesis chapter one, and occasionally by Augustine in his dispute with the Manicheans. And when the apostle says in First Corinthians chapter eleven that “a man indeed ought not cover his head, since he is the image and glory of God, but the woman is the glory of man,” he thus plainly makes a distinction between the man and the woman, saying that the man is indeed made in the image of God, but the woman in the image of man. This cannot be understood only of internal human rectitude and righteousness, of which the woman is a partaker together with the man in the Lord, but is wholly to be understood of the authority of rule, which, as is well known, was granted at once to the man at the beginning, but denied to the woman. 74 The putting of Adam in a paradise of pleasure after he was made, a place more excellent and exceptional in comparison with all other habitations on the whole earth, and that he put names �75 �upon all the living creatures, also relate to this dignity of the image of God. For what else do these things prove than that he was the lord and ruler of the whole earth? Many other things are disputed concerning the status that our first parents had in paradise, and what they would have had if they had not sinned, but these things from Sacred Scripture are more certain and more profitable to students of theology: briefly, to hold, first, that man was made; second, that he was made by God; third, that he was made from the dust of the earth; fourth, that he was built with the special care of God; and fifth, that he was made in and elevated to the image of God, so that he is more outstanding in both nature and worth than all other creatures. If properly considered, these things contain most ample subject matter of Christian philosophy, and are conducive to this, that through the consideration of our origin we are restored to modesty, and through the knowledge of the uprightness and dignity of our first parents, we understand more deeply what we have lost in them, and what we have recovered, and not without great gain, in Christ our second Adam, and the author of our regeneration. 76 �77 �Bad Dreams - Nadine Bucca 78 �“Creating a Community” An Inter view with Associate Dean Brendan Boyle A vision for building community at the St. John’s College Graduate Institute. By Stephen Borsum 79 �It was what I would call the first cold day of the year when I came to the BBC to meet Mr. Boyle for an interview. It was cold only in that the rain falling that day was a chilling one, one lacking the distinct warmth that rain has in summer and early fall here in Annapolis. As I entered, I approached Mr. Boyle’s office to see it closed. Unexpected, given I was just on time for our scheduled meeting. But he called to me from within the GI Conference room where he had been taking some calls for the day, and after some polite banter and the brewing of some green tea, we began our discussion. What follows has been edited for clarity, and is ultimately a poor reflection of just how engaging a face-to-face conversation with Mr. Boyle can be. Stephen: I’m really curious to hear your thoughts on the role you play as dean. You know, you’re a liaison to the college. You are a tutor. You’re a family man. You have all of these responsibilities and so, where does worrying about the health of the GI community fall in the list of priorities? Mr. Boyle: I think my top priority is the GI as a community. One thing I realized when I was thinking about this interview this morning is that I’m probably going to be borrowing a lot of formulations that I heard from Walter Sterling yesterday. And I’m happy to credit him and you can credit him in whatever way you think is necessary, but I hadn’t really even, until yesterday, begun to notice that the first statement of the program is that St. John’s College is a community of learning, and that even if I hadn’t noticed that, I don’t think I had caught what he drew attention to. Which is that sentence, at least on his construction, is meant to distinguish St. John’s qua community from St. John’s qua institution like in the first instance. At the same time it might well be an institution. But if it’s an institution, that description is somehow much lower than the description of St. John’s as a community. So I do feel like my first responsibility is to the community of learning and more particularly to the community of learning that is the Graduate Institute now. And that there’s a new aspect to that community given the fact that the community now includes persons who are not physically located here, namely low-residency students. And so, in some sense, I’m the first Associate Dean to inherit this. To walk into a community or to have responsibility of shepherding the community that is not physically in the same place. It is true that Emily Langston also had that in the latter part of her term, 80 �and maybe I’m the first to come into a term for a community of this sort. And that will present, you know, new different challenges, but those are very much on my mind. How does one hold together a community that includes a not small number of persons who are not residents of this place? I’m trying to do some things, reading groups, for example, that in the past, I think, would be unheard of for an associate dean to have a reading group that was held online by design. But for me, in having the dean’s reading group be part of the weekend, I made it online by design because I was trying to be responsive to the nature or shape of the community now. To return to to the formulation of your question, I really do think that my job is as the steward of the community and its intellectual health, but intellectual health understood in the most capacious term. I also want people to be flourishing affectively and interpersonally because, in so doing, their intellectual flourishing will be still greater. Not to go on too long — I do want to make this conversation — but I will say one thing that I really liked about some of the things [Walter Sterling] said yesterday is that it’s very important for the person in a position of leadership to be physically present. And I’m trying to keep that at the center of my own mind. Now, I think I can actually do a much better job of being at ASG on Thursday nights — things like that. I could, in fact — and should, in fact, do a better job of that. So one of the things that’s important to me is to acknowledge the importance of the associate dean being physically present here as much as possible. Stephen: I will say, I think the impact of that is already palpable. You and Ms. Langston both have prioritized that, and I think it’s noted. I will give you the pass on being there at ASG. You’re here at, you know, eight or nine in the morning. I don’t think we need you there at 10 p.m. at night. That’s not on you. Mr. Boyle: That’s kind of you to say. Stephen: That splits off into two things, and feel free to go either direction with these questions. I do think the gap between the in-person students and the low-residency students is a very tough one to address and some things are being done like low residency weekends and I think everyone really enjoys those and it’s hard to require them to come to us 81 �more. So I think that solutions like online reading groups are excellent. The other thing is the relationship between tutors and students seems so vital and, as much as I know, certain tutors really enjoy the GI but I don’t see them present in some of those additional events. So I think the two main questions there are: Are there other things you are considering to bridge the gap between in-person and low-residency? And how do we keep the tutors involved at a greater level? Mr. Boyle: Yeah, two hard and great questions. I have some ideas for bridging this gap, and I’m not sure even if the ideas were put in place and they were successful, I’m still not sure how much the gap would be bridged. One of the things that I’d like to do and want to start doing in the near future is just doing something like a spotlight on a low-residency student, weekly or biweekly, or something like that, and maybe having a little interview and then putting it up on the board or sending it around. Just as a way to get the in-person students to know about the low-residency students who are out there. Would that make intellectual connections? I don’t know. I’m hopeful that something like that, and I don’t know what their exact right form is, could go some way. Now, to me, it’s still an open question. What would the best possible outcome look like? How much of a divide would there be in the best of all possible worlds between the low-residency students and the in-person students? I don’t think that the answer would be none. But maybe it would be rather little and I think that’s a perfect question. How do you achieve that “rather little.” The question about tutors is also a good and hard one. And I think that one of the things that Emily Langston did really well is integrate the Graduate Institute into the larger life of the college, and I think that she would say that that was an important part of her own work. I think that she would also say that it’s probably not yet finished, and it’s my job to, if not finish it, then hopefully advance it. But it’s also true that we haven’t really found a way to bring more tutors to the GI. I feel like there’s a somewhat small subset of tutors, and the faculty who are teaching in the GI and we haven’t yet found a way to broaden that subset. There are some restrictions, like untenured faculty can’t teach in the GI seminar. OK, leave that to the side. I would like to find a way, and I’ve begun to speak with [Annapolis Dean] Susan Paalman about this to find a way to bring in mid-career tutors beyond the current subset of regulars into the GI, because I feel like that problem is related to the problem that you’ve said of getting tutors to just be at other co-curricular or curricular-adjacent events. 82 �They seemed like separate problems, but I think they’re related in that if people think of the GI as a regular part of the academic life of the college tutors, that is, they will see GI events — be they ASG or (Campus) Convening weekend or what have you — as much more of a piece with homecoming weekend or just general college events that they go to with some regularity, even if they’re not teaching in the GI in that particular semester. So, that’s an aim of mine, and I think it would be good for the GI to have greater circulation of the faculty through it. And I think that some of the GI students even like the fact that there a subset of tutors who are especially dedicated to GI. I think there is something to be said for that, but it would be nice for that subset to be larger, and then I think we would have that circulation which would be good for all parties. Stephen: I think all of that addresses another question I have. It seems that It’s hard to build a community with busy adults when you only have four segments to do so. And I know that’s how the program is built and marketed, but do you see that as a hindrance to a sustaining a community? Are there inclinations you have on how to address that other than GIs coming back to do precepts and audit classes later? Mr. Boyle: Can I first ask a question in response? Is it somehow a corollary of that question that the MALA could or should be longer than four segments? Stephen: It certainly could be. And I’m thinking of the four semesters and particularly how I hear it marketed in some ways where you could do summer or fall, spring, summer and be done in a year, and you can hardly form a friendship in a year regardless of your lifelong relationships. Mr. Boyle: That seems that seems fairly said. On the one hand, I think that the MALA is by most Master’s standards long. Most other programs speak in the language of credit hours. This Master’s program, seeing as it takes, let’s say, two academic years, generally is more time for students to form community than I think a lot of other Master’s programs have. I’m not entirely sure that the time component is works against us. I do agree that 83 �when the program is marketed, or at least described, as a program that you could finish in a year — summer, academic year, following summer — then the question of how to put that frame together with the emphasis on community is a hard one, and maybe even might sound a little bit disingenuous. As in, how can you promise the creation of community in one calendar year? I would respect that criticism. I don’t actively talk about the program as one that should be done in a single calendar year. When people ask if they can do this, I tell them that of course they can, and I recognize that some people have a year off of their job or a sabbatical that is just the calendar year, and we want them to be able to do this in that in that single calendar year and I guess we’re in some sense crossing our fingers that the intensity of the program will generate some sort of community and lasting friendship that is typically brought about by time. It might be important for me to think about those persons who have done the program in a year and calendar year and whether they as a distinct group feel connected or not to the college now. One other open question for me is: does this segment structure itself work against community? That wasn’t precisely your formulation, but I wonder if you might endorse it? And I say that because it’s not as if students move through the program together. You’re in a segment with somebody one semester and then they’re in segment X in the spring semester, but you’re in segment Y spring semester and you just don’t see each other or aren’t reading the same texts any longer. Does that work against community? Maybe it does. It’s certainly true that the undergraduates, you know, don’t have that experience. So that’s something I may have to give some more thought to, but maybe I could just pause for a second and ask you, do you think that segment structure works against community? Insofar as the person with whom you are forging a deep friendship now this fall very well will not be in the same class with you next semester, let alone in the same segment. Stephen: I do think this type of thing plays out in ASG. And I haven’t seen enough evidence to say that it’s positive or negative, but it is interesting to see the... I want don’t use the term “clique” because it’s often so loaded, but it’s the most apt word. Cliques will form in ASG often, and if they’re not people who are already established friends they will form because of the shared texts. And those are bright and vibrant conversations, but 84 �at the same time, there is such a genuine interest in what everyone else is experiencing that I think it overcomes itself, so I don’t think the segment structure is necessarily a hindrance. I would be curious to know, and this is more of a general question, if there is a perceived issue, how even flexible is the structure of the GI? It doesn’t seem like it’s something that can change on a whim. Mr. Boyle: Definitely not something that could change on a whim. But the GI structure has changed a lot, even in the short time that I’ve been at the college. For example, the decoupling of the preceptorials from the segments. At one point, not during Emily Langston’s associate deanship but back in Jeff Black’s deanship, it used to be the case that the preceptorials were in a pretty strong sense pegged to the segments offered that term. So, if you take this term for an example, Math and Natural Science, and Literature. The preceptorials offered would be two Literature preceptorials and two Math and Natural Science preceptorials. Instead, what we actually have this fall is Canterbury tales, Galileo, three modern poets, the Greek, and Plato. And yes some of those may fit the themes of the current segments, but that seems to be circumstance, not designed. I think in years past one might have said that Plato’s Republic somehow belongs to Philosophy and Theology. So I do think that there is some kind of openness for the structure of the GI to change, and you might hear people around the halls talk about other paths to degree that the GI might pursue. Maybe we decouple — and I’m not endorsing this, I’m just reporting things that I’ve heard — decouple the seminars and tutorials. And it’s no longer the case that one needs to take four seminar-tutorial pairs plus four preceptorials, but one needs to take four seminars, four tutorials and four preceptorials. And they can be somehow mixed and matched. That could not be changed on a whim and I’m not sure that that’s even a good idea. I would say I do think that the relationship between seminar and tutorial in the GI is unique and it’s not like the relationship between seminar and tutorial in the undergraduate program. Insofar as it’s unique, I can imagine people in the future thinking about different ways forward to the degree that may not abandon the segment structure, but might actually in some sense alter it because one would be no longer bound to these seminar-tutorial pairs. Again I’m not endorsing this. I’m just speculating on things that I have heard, and I’m of two minds. As you might recall yesterday, Walter Sterling talked about the GI as be 85 �ing a place for experiments, and I think that there’s definitely some truth to that. Now, one needs to be cautious about imagining the GI as just some kind of laboratory where one can try a bunch of different things, because that’s a deep disservice to the Institute, as an institution with its own coherent program. It’s true that it’s more amenable to experimentation, new offerings, new MALA segments than with the undergraduate. Well, obviously it might be amenable to new offerings than undergraduate programming is, but one needs to be very measured about how one goes about doing such a thing. Stephen: I think this discussion of the structure of the GI program raises a question that ties the conversation back to the relationship between the GI and the broader college community. I think the first thing I want to just hear your input on is, there is such a difference in how the GI and the undergrad programs are built — and this might get at the heart of the issue — do you think GIs and undergrads graduate from their programs prepared to have the same conversation with each other? Is there something inherently true about the structure either way that creates that unity? Mr. Boyle: I think there’s enough overlap between the texts that are at the center of the GI. I want to say that at the center of the GI are the books and at the center of the undergraduate program are the books. It just so happens that we have kind of carved them up into segments for reasons that might be related to the unique position that a number of persons who are coming to the GI find themselves in. That they’re organized by segments to me will always remain a secondary fact about the about the Graduate Institute, and the books on the lists will always remain the absolute center, and insofar as there is great overlap between those lists and the list for the undergraduate program. I do think that the two sets of graduates, GI and undergraduates, go out ready to talk to one another, and the places in which they differ, it’s probably the case that undergraduates know about and wish that they could have read things that are in the GI program and vice versa. For example, the entire history segment. GI’s have ready ears to hear about things that are in the graduate program but not in the undergraduate one, and seem genuinely curious about the undergraduate experience and what it offers that they may not see in the GI. Labs are a terrific example there. Music, by and large. But yeah, there’s a nice amount of overlap. But with the possibility for growth because the overlap is not total. 86 �Stephen: Absolutely. Well, I only have two more quick questions for you. I’m curious to hear your take on what it is that makes the GI community so unique amongst the polity or even in the world. And then the last question is just a question on your background and what got you here. So I guess you if you want to take the GI community question first and then we can jump into the other one. Mr Boyle: This is where I’m definitely going to steal from Walter yesterday because I thought it was so moving of him to have said that. In some sense, the GI is most reflective of what it is that is at the heart of St. John’s College. Insofar as, people come to the graduate program, people do not drift into the Graduate Institute in the way that 18-year-olds can drift into the undergraduate program or be helped along by their parents into the undergraduate program, directed by their parents say, into the undergraduate program. It’s not a knock on anybody, it’s just a recognition of that’s how life is. One at 18 is still not quite in charge of one’s own life. But when one decides at the age of 25, 55, 75 to give of oneself one’s time and one’s finances to intellectual inquiry, that is a demonstration of the true choice-worthiness of the undertaking that we do here. That characterizes the work of the college. And yes, it will always be the case that the undergraduate program is at the center of St. John’s. No one, no one is doubting that. But I thought that Walter really highlighted a way in which something about the presence of persons who have made a very considered and deliberate choice, in something like the middle of their lives, to undertake this mode of inquiry through conversation is the best possible endorsement of it. So, I found that very, very moving. And in some sense wish all GIs could have heard that. It helps me even think about what I find so moving about seeing a 25-year-old, a 55-year-old, a 75-year-old here together learning from one another. I see in them hunger for a life of learning with others and in community with others but also, recognition that that hunger is one that can be met by this distinct community, the institution of St. John’s College. So, their presence here in the Graduate Institute is in some sense the greatest endorsement of the institution as a whole. Now, how did I get here? Again, I’m going to borrow a little bit from something that I heard Walter say in a different meeting. I’ve been a tutor for 10 years, more or less. And at some point along the way, I think I felt some sort of calling to take on a role in the college over and above my work and the working of the classroom, which is, I believe, the most important work at the college. But I thought that I might have had one or two administrative talents that are in some sense very minor virtues like staying on top of 87 �things or keeping some things organized, that I felt like I could put in the college’s service. I Won’t be in this position forever and look forward to returning to the classroom, but as I felt like I had these minor virtues I wanted to share them with the college. And so when they asked me to do this, I was very glad to do it. And I came into the role with the GI in a great position and hope to leave it in a still better one. Stephen: Building on your journey to this position I have one last question is and then we’ll get you out of here. I saw in your background in classics is what led you into this world of inquiry. But clearly, just even having a couple of brief intro or Campus Convening Weekend seminars with you, there’s a vibrancy in you about educating itself. So I’m curious, does that drive to be an educator come before the passion of the classics, or did the passion of the classics inspire the drive to be an educator? Mr. Boyle: Can I do the thing that interviewers hate and just reject the terms of question? Stephen: Be my guest. Mr Boyle: I think I might have at one time thought of myself as an educator, but I’m very grateful to St. John’s because I don’t any longer really think of myself as an educator. But I feel like I can passionately model being a student, like I just love learning and I love learning with others and I think I’m not bad at it. I think I know how it goes well, and what in what conditions it goes well, and what conditions it goes somewhat poorly. And I think I can model that for people. If I’m educating them in that regard, I’m happy to, but I’m definitely not filling their minds with any theories. 88 I’m grateful to St. John’s because to be perfectly honest, before I came to St. John’s I did just want to be filled with facts that I could report, but not really own as my own. St. John’s, as I think it’s true for many tutors, marked a real new beginning in my own intellectual life. What I could say if I have to start again from nothing and say, almost all of what I take myself to know I know in only the most attenuated sense because it’s so mediated. It’s been handed to me by so many other persons that I have never really taken any ownership of my own education, and I think I was able to do that when I �became a tutor and I hope I’m showing people that they can do that, too. And you can start at any time. It’s available to anybody to just take ownership of their education. And insofar as I’m showing people what that might look like, I may consider myself an educator, but in the main, I’m just a student. Stephen: Well, it’s certainly palpable and thank you for taking some time with me today Mr. Boyle: It was a pleasure, glad to. 89 �Thank you to all our contributors 90 Austin Suggs On Creation Chris Macbride Old Dog Cynthia Crane The First Postulate John Harwood Before the Blank Stare Kyle Reynolds The Creation of the Self Louis Petrich Children of That World Nadine Bucca Visual Art Noah Vancina The Nature of the Pilgramage Sam Hage Corruption at the Symposium Shirley Quo The Galileo Affair Siobhán Petersen How to Read Well Stacey Rains Forbidden Fruit Stephen Cunha On the Creation of Man Sydney Rowe Mimi Sylvie Bernhardt My Mind’s a Dark Forest Yonas Ketsela A Dialogue with Descartes �COLLOQUY St. John’s College, 60 College Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland Volume 13: Fall 2023 Editor Stephen Borsum Editorial board: Sarah Ritchie, Paul Harland-White, Shirley Quo, Stuart Williams, Kyle Reynolds, Sylvie Bernhardt With thanks to: Kashya Boretsky, Associate Dean Brendan Boyle, and the Graduate Student Council ..... Colloquy is a biannual publication of the Graduate Student Council and St. John’s College in Annapolis, Maryland. The journal is free of charge. Address correspondence to Colloquy, The Graduate Institute at St. John’s College, 60 College Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland, 21401. Or email to colloquy@sjc.edu. Students, tutors, and alumni of St. John’s College and the Graduate Institute are encouraged to submit their manuscripts in PDF or Word format by email to colloquy@sjc.edu . The journal also accepts submissions of poetry, original art, and photography. Please include your name, contact information, and the title of your work with your submission. Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in the journal do not necessarily reflect those St. John’s College, the Graduate Council, or Colloquy. 91 �92 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Colloquy Description An account of the resource A student-run journal for the Graduate Institute community of St. John's College in Annapolis, Maryland. The issues feature essays, art, poetry, interviews, and more. Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data pdf Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 92 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Colloquy, Fall 2023 Description An account of the resource Volume 13 of Colloquy, published in Fall 2023. The theme of the issue is On Creation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Borsum, Stephen (Editor) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2024-02 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College owns the rights to this publication. Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived English Subject The topic of the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.)--Periodicals Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Colloquy_Fall2023_Online-Copy Graduate Institute https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/f4353552f4c101da6da3ae0d82e6132d.mp3 c1087d574f863f5ada7fa05f8863e78b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Lecture Recordings—Santa Fe Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Meem Library Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Santa Fe, NM Sound A resource primarily intended to be heard. Examples include a music playback file format, an audio compact disc, and recorded speech or sounds. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data m4a Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 01:01:43 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Hair, Clothes, Brush: On Becoming Human in The Tale of Genji Description An account of the resource Audio recording of a lecture given by tutor Patricia Locke on February 2, 2024 as part of the Dean's Lecture & Concert Series. The Dean's Office has provided this description of the event: "In the hothouse of courtly life in Heian Japan, people cultivated themselves and their relationships through deliberate attention to hair, clothes and the aesthetic realm dominated by arts of the brush: calligraphy, painting, and poetry. What can the material aspects of their highly refined lives tell us about becoming human? What is it to be members of a species immersed in our environment, yet able to affectively distance ourselves enough to create and sustain poetic meaning? Genji, the radiant and accomplished prince, paradoxically devoted himself to both amorous adventures and religious rituals. He caused heartache in his sometimes violent encounters, yet he suffused the world with beauty wherever he appeared. Through practices of reading and writing aligned with The Tale of Genji, we are invited to participate in becoming more attuned to loveliness and suffering, invited to become more fully human." Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Locke, Patricia M. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Santa Fe, NM Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2024-02-02 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Meem Library has been given permission to make this item available online. Type The nature or genre of the resource sound Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource mp3 Subject The topic of the resource Murasaki Shikibu, 978?-. Genji monogatari. Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SF_LockeP_Hair_Clothes_Brush_2024-02-02 Friday night lecture https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/8b0eba4bd35d8dacf11dfeae6cb34143.pdf 966a18c6d1654b00b9ce9da7682bebc3 PDF Text Text CELLS AND GENES ARE PARTS OF ANIMALS: ARISTOTLE IN THE LATE 2QTH CENTURY James N. Jarvis, M.D., SJC '75 (Annapolis) Assistant Professor of Pediatrics Wayne State University School of Medicine Detroit, MI 1 �ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE LEC1'URE 09/16/M CELLS AND GENES ARE PARTS OF ANIMALS: ARISTOTLE IN THE LATE 20TH CENTURY Ms. Braun, members of the St. John's faculty, fellow-members of the St. John's community. It is a pleasure to be your guest this evening and to return to the campus where my intellectual and spiritual life was nurtured for four years. I must begin by reassuring Mr. Michael Dink that I really do have a talk planned this evening and that this is not just an elaborately-organized scheme for me to get a bully-pulpit to regale yet. another generation of St. Johnnies about events that occurred on a nearby softball field just under 20 years ago. Let me also assure those who think that the words •... mental lapse .. ." and "Michael Dink" can't be spoken in the same sentence that the full telling of this story will occur (yet again) during my class's 20th reunion a little more than a year from now. This lecture has been incubating for more than eight years, since, in fact, my first introduction to biomedical science in Paul Levine's laboratory at Washington University in St. Louis. Until then, my exposure to medical research, even in medical school, had been more bookish than practical and my own view of how hypotheses are generated and tested was, I think, limited. Since that time, I have had the great privilege of participating in a first-hand way in the investigation of living matter and how it works. My primary interest in this activity has been a practical one: I have accepted the Baconian premise that understanding how the body functions or operates under normal conditions is the key to understanding what happens when it doesn't function or doesn't function well. I have, in effect, taken a rather narrow and what might otherwise be called mechanistic approach to living matter. More precisely, I have become interested in how cells, genes, and proteins work (this distinction between the understanding the whole and the parts, and understanding how something works versus other kinds of understanding, will be explored further in this lecture). Thus, this lecture will have something of a narrow focus. Please don't expect insights of a profound nature, either about living matter or about Aristotle. I am fully aware that there are individuals in this audience (probably sophomores, who have read just enough Aristotle to be menacing) who may even be expecting me to finish this lecture by telling you what "life", or living matter is. Please accept my humble apologies for not providing this and offering, instead, some thoughts about the study of living things and Aristotle's contributions to that study. During the course of this lecture I will share some of my insights into Aristotle's The Parts of Animals, and I will also tell you a little bit about how to clone a gene. In the process of doing so, it is my intention to awaken you to the incredible beauty and complexity of living things and enhance your respect for Aristotle's understanding of them. While engaged in this wonderful challenge of understanding the working of nature and its relation to health and disease, I have been struck by the vocabulary of biological scientists, my friends and colleagues. Although they themselves may not recognize it, it seems to me that the language of biology is different from the language of other sciences, certainly different from the languages of geology, physics, and chemistry, three disciplines I follow at a distance as an interested amateur (largely through my perusal of the weekly journal, Science). What is more, that language, the language of modem biological science, reminds me of an older scientific language, a language of a discipline that my friend and mentor Leon Kass calls natural philosophy as a reminder of its pre·Baconian origins. This language of biology, I submit, still uses important concepts which have been central to the study of biology since they were articulated in The Parts of Animals. What I will try to point out to you this evening is how those concepts articulated by Aristotle more than 2,000 years ago are still used in modem cell and molecular biology, and I will try to convince you (as I continue to try to convince my colleagues) that the use of these concepts is appropriate and, I think, necessary. I will this evening argue that not only is the language of modern biology still essentially "Aristotelian," but that our approach to understanding 2 �living matter and how it works differs little from the paradigm presented in the opening paragraphs of Parts of Animals. I will, furthermore, try to convince you that "good" and "bad" biological science rests, to a large extent, upon the investigator's ability to see .the world of living things through Aristotle's eyes. a should point out that I am not using the words "good" and "bad" here in a moral sense. What I mean by "good science" is a shorthand for investigation that would be publishable in peer-reviewed medical or scientific journals: experiments and conclusions that would be accepted by other knowledgeable people in the investigator's field. Whether there is morally "good" and "bad" science, and whether Aristotle's system of the investigation would recognize such, is a question I will not address here but might be raised in the question period when I am finished these remarks). I clearly cannot talk about all of The Parts of Animals this evening, so I have and will restrict my observations to the opening chapter of the first book, in which Aristotle presents the terms and format for the ensuing discussion. I think that this is really the richest part of the book, because, at risk of stealing my own thunder, I believe that the genius of Aristotle is not his own particular observations about animals and the functions of their parts. Many or most of his observations have not subsequently been found either verifiable or generalizable. Rather, Aristotle's brilliance, at least in the field of biology, rests in his having provided the framework for all future discussions about living matter. I will share an anecdote that introduces some of the points that I will be making in the rest of this talk. I was visiting a colleague at the University of Michigan Medical Center in nearby Ann Arbor last winter, and, like a polite and interested scientist, I asked her how her work was going. She beamed and proudly answered, "Great! I think I've found a function for my gene." This is a response that perhaps only another cell or molecular biologist could understand or appreciate. Suffice it to say that, while the modern revolution in molecular biology and medicine has given us tremendous power to clone and sequence genes from every species of living matter, including human beings, those of us engaged in this sort of endeavor are actually looking for something more than a genomic or complementary DNA library and a gene sequence. What my colleague was telling me, I think, was that she had finished the 20th century part of her work (discovering; cloning, and sequencing a gene), but that her work was seriously deficient until she had done the Aristotelian part. She understood that a gene sequence in itself is a rather paltry contribution to science and very unlikely to be published in a prestigious journal or by itself provide the basis for a grant application to the National Institutes of Health without a context for that gene sequence. That is, even after having intimate knowledge of the structure of a gene and the related DNA sequences that control its transcription to RNA and protein, there is something more that needs to be explored and considered before even one's fellow-scientists will consider the work either compelling or complete. Let us look in more detail at the type of work that my friend had done and try to define, in Aristotle's terms, what more needed to be done. Anyone who has taken a high-school level biology course or is reasonably well-versed with the lay press is aware that living things possess within their cells the information required to replicate either identical copies of themselves or semi-allogenic copies which contain genetic material from another member of the same or a nearly-related species (we call these copies "offspring", and, for the human species, they are called "children"). However, although the discovery of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as the source of genetic information and the unravelling of its marvelous code has assuredly contributed in an enormous way to our understanding of genetics and reproductive physiology, an equal impact bas come in our ability to explore in a detailed fashion the functioning of cells and how the expression of particular genes is controlled in particular cell types. Thus, specific cells in specific tissues are capable of being studied in intricate detail and this, in turn, has allowed us tremendous insight into how these cells and tissues function. It is this level of study, sometimes subsumed under the heading, •eeu and Molecular Biology," that provides the core for much of modem medical research. 3 �If you examine appropriately-stained human tissue under a light microscope, it is very clear that what you are viewing consists of an ordered arrangement, and that different-appearing cell types contribute to this pattern. In fact, the absence of pattern and the appearance or predominance of a single cell type, the pattern observed in tissue sections of malignant tumors, appears obviously pathological. Similarly, within these cells, a semblance of pattern emerges, different for each cell type, with some common patterns for all cells. DNA is largely confined to the nucleus, while RNA and the structures for protein biosynthesis can be found in the cytoplasm. These observations, which have been accepted for many years, suggest that, although every cell of a given organism contains the same genetic material as every other cell, in multicellular organisms (and especially complex organisms like vertebrates), every gene is not expressed in every cell of every tissue. That is, the different cell types and specialized functions of specific cells (for example, insulin secretion by what are know as islet cells of the pancreas) demonstrate or indicate that the transcription of encoded DNA into a messenger RNA template and subsequently into protein occurs differently in the cell types, and sometimes differently depending upon the tissue in which a given cell type might be found. This has lead to the hypothesis that certain cells and tissues express genes that are not expressed in other cells or tissues, and that our understanding of the functioning of such cells or tissues in health and disease might be aided considerably by our knowledge of the genes expressed exclusively in these tissues and the factors that control their expression. The discovery of gene sequences expressed only in specific tissues is undertaken by the construction by what are called gene libraries. This was the process that my colleague in Ann Arbor was engaged in when I visited her last winter, and because the process by which this is accomplished is relevant to the discussion that follows, I will share some of that with you. I apologize in advance for the somewhat technical nature of this exposition, realizing that I am about to provide you with something that is almost certain to squelch fruitful discussion at St. John's: factual information. Please bear with me, however, because I believe your understanding of the process through which data is generated in the modem biological sciences will help you to understand what I have to say about understanding this data from Aristotle's point of view. I should also say that I believe the process itself would have been interesting to Aristotle, and that I believe that it's the sort of thing he himself would have delighted in had he had the means to do it. The construction of gene libraries from specific cell or tissue types begins again with the "First Law" of modern biology: that DNA contains information that encodes specific protein sequences, and that the protein is synthesized from a template molecule of RNA, whose synthesis serves as the intermediary step. You will recall (again, please forgive my pedantry) that proteins are composed of smaller building blocks called amino acids. Each amino acid is specified within the DNA molecule by a three base-pair sequence called a codon. The DNA code is somewhat "degenerate", as the currently-used jargon has it, in that some of the amino acids are specified by more than one codon. In the normal sequence, a gene is activated by the binding of certain proteins to a region of DNA called the promotor, which results in the transcription of an RNA molecule whose sequence is complementary to that of the DNA template (remembering the Second Law of modem biological science: adenine pairs with thymine [or, in an RNA molecule, with uracil] and guanine with cytosine ). The newly-synthesized RNA molecule is processed further in the cell cytoplasm and used as a template for the biosynthesis of a new protein. Because of the complementarity of DNA or RNA, gene libraries can be constructed from either, those using DNA referred to as genomic libraries (containing all the genes of the specific species from which they were obtained and therefore identical whether the starting tissue was brain or skin) and those starting with RNA being designated "complementary DNA libraries," as they begin with a RNA which is then synthesized in vitro to a complementary strand of DNA Complementary DNA libraries contain only the gene sequences are expressed in the tissue or cells from which they were obtained The next steps in cloning involve the digestion of the DNA into smaller fragments that can be analyzed 4 �in a practical way, and the insertion of the fragments into a host (usually a virus) that will allow its insertion into a cell (at this stage, usually, a bacterium) that will propagate and produce multiple copies of the gene fragments. This is. necessary in order to have an adequate amount of DNA to manipulate and analyze. After millions of copies of each gene are produced, the gene fragments can be isolated from the bacteria, which grow as colonies on agar plates. Selection of the specific colonies which contain the genes or genes of interest can be accomplished by examining products secreted by the bacteria or by techniques which rely upon the binding of related DNA sequences to the DNA within the bacterial plasmids. The bacteria containing the genes of interest can then be selectively grown, the plasmids containing the cloned DNA isolated from the rest of the bacterial DNA, and the sequence and structure of the cloned genes ascertained (the techniques used to sequence DNA are in themselves rather interesting but not within the purview of a talk like this one). Using complementary DNA libraries, unique genes expressed in specific tissues in response to specific stimuli or at specific times in development can be identified, isolated, and their sequence determined I want you to note that up to this point all we have is a gene sequence, a structure, a very minute part of an animal (or plant). Furthermore, although there is some marvelous technical wizardry involved in obtaining this sequence, the process through which the sequence is obtained is more or less mechanical and, with some exceptions, more or less the same no matter what cell type, tissue, or even species the scientist is working with. This is the equivalent, more or less, of doing what Aristotle describes in lines 15-18 of the first chapter: taking a lion, or ox, or human being and describing the parts in infinite detail. No attempt is made (yet) of relating the minute DNA sequences to commonly-expressed cell, tissue, or organism functions. The reason for this relates, in part, to the method through which genes are isolated and cloned. It should be clear from how I have described the method of cloning and sequencing that the manipulation of DNA required for this process involves the almost complete separation of that particular gene or DNA sequence from the context in which it is normally found However, it is just that context that is crucial to our understanding of the role of that gene within the cell and, subsequently, its role in the function of that particular tissue or organism. The rest of the process, the activity that makes cloning and sequencing truly interesting, involves the understanding of how the protein encoded by that gene functions or what it does (which is why my colleague was so excited about having a function for her gene). To put it another way, one seeks the telos for that gene. Until that is found, the mere gene or protein, sequence is singularly uninteresting to either the natural philosopher or the molecular biologist. To put it in language that my peers might understand, it would be very difficult to publish a gene sequence by itself without a context for that sequence which suggests a functional. role for that gene in a cell or tissue or in a particular biological process. My knowledge of that function might be limited or vague, but publishable molecular work invariably contains and requires a context without which the gene sequence is neither useful nor enlightening. So what does all this have to do with Aristotle? Because this is early in the year, I think I should say a few things about the reading of Aristotle to the freshman, who should be engrossed in and captivated by Homer at this time and have probably had little no exposure to Aristotle's scientific books. In this way I will also reveal some of the prejudices that I have brought to this book as I read and reread it over the past 8 years. I was once told that a key to reading Aristotle is the understanding that many of his books seem to be written as answers for which the reader must supply the question. I have found this insight very useful. Furthermore when reading The Parts of Animal.s, I have found it helpful to pause after every sentence or two and ask, "As opposed to what?" We are fortunate that Aristotle sometimes gives us alternative explanations or possibilities, but I think that one appreciates the genius of Aristotle only after considering the explanations or alternative ideas that he has rejected without his having belabored the point in writing Oest the freshmen should be misguided, let me quickly point out that Aristotle is not above belaboring points). To begin this discussion, we have to confront, first and foremost, our archnemesis. I believe that understanding The Parts of Animal.a requires some insight into the alternative point of view about 5 �living things, which Aristotle attributes to Empedocles. I feel unfortunate that most of what I know about Empedocles comes from Aristotle, and I think that we at St. John's, especially, have to be cautious in judging a philosopher's thought simply on the basis of what somewhat else says about him. I certainly would not want to judge Aristotle's system of natural science on the basis of what is said about him in modern science textbooks, for example. However, be that as it may, whether fairly or unfairly, Empedocles is used as representative of a school of thought that suggests that the coming· to-be of living things has occurred by chance, that their formation has occurred haphazardly, and that the compelling force in this process is necessity, in Greek, anangke. For example, the process of the formation of the backbone, Empedocles is said to argue, occurs by necessity, a consequence of the fetus becoming twisted in the uterus. This approach is one that, on the surface, seems attractive to modern scientists. It is certainly consistent with classical physics and mechanics and the so-called scientific ideal exemplified in Newtonian physics. When I was a junior here at St. John's, I remember reading a quote by French biologist Andre Lwoff attempting to support a role for Empedoclean necessity in biological science: "The machine is built for doing precisely what it does. We may admire it, but we should not lose our heads. If the living system did not perform its task, it would not exist. We simply have to learn how it performs its task. "1 This same mechanistic approach seems to have been what Claude Bernard had in mind when he stated that: "...a created organism is a machine that necessarily2 works by virtue of the physico-chemical properties of its constituent elements. "3 At a certain level, this seems to remain a deeply-cherished belief or prejudice of modern scientists, who, even after the demise of classical physics in the early 20th century seem to yearn for a world more like Newton's than Einstein's. However, when I confront this belief, as I often do when I encounter other colleagues, particularly those who work exclusively in the laboratory rather than at the bedside, I recall the words of Marcel Proust: "Error is more obstinate than faith and does not examine the grounds of its belief." I do believe that in biology and experimental medicine, the Newtonian/Cartesian model is erroneous, or at least incomplete. The ·problem with this approach, is, ironically, a practical one: it simply doesn't work. It may very well be. true that the coming-to-be of living matter occurred as an accident in the "primordial soup" billions of years ago, requiring neither the direction of a beneficent deity or even directedness from the impersonal forces of nature. It may very well be that what transpired was 1 Quoted from The Cell Carl Swanson. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 3rd Ed., 1969, p.7. 2 My italics 3 Claude Bernard, An Introducti.on to the Study of Experimental Medicine, trans. Henry Copley Green. New York: Dover Books, 1957, p. 93. 6 �inevitable based on the laws that govern large molecules that we now call "organic" and the chemistry of carbon and nitrogen. That does not negate the fact that what has come to be is organized matter, and that our understanding of that matter requires our understanding of that organization and the relationship between structure and function. As Aristotle points out, the Empedoclean view falls short because of its lack of logos. It does not provide a framework which makes the phenomena understandable. Aristotle follows this by gleefully pointing out that Empedocles, too "... being led and guided by Truth itself, stumbles upon this.. ."' and is required to recant and retract, admitting, for example that bone is more than its elements per se, but that there is a logos (which, in this context, I believe might be translated "understandable feature" or "... understandable features ... ") that requires several layers of explanation for us to discern. Thus, while the mechanistic language borrowed by modern biologists from classical physics might sometimes be used in the biological sciences, that is not the common language and certainly not the language used in published research. Let me add that this is not because, in their heart of hearts, modern biologists don't wish to have a language reminiscent of classical physics. Indeed, one of the prejudices common among biological researchers is that the laws of biological science (dealing, as they do, with the macroscopic world) are or will be shown to be more like classical mechanics, with orderly phenomena of cause and affect occurring in ti.me, than like the topsy-turvy world of quantum physics and relativity. They have learned however, that the language of classical physics and mechanics has limited practical usefulness in modern biological research. I will here therefore submit that there are several critical concepts in Aristotle's biology that remain in common use in modern biological science (although in a somewhat disguised form), that remain crucial to how we understand living matter. I will spend the rest of my time examining two of these concepts in more detail. They are telos and anangke. My list is intentionally limited to these two, but before I proceed I should state that a complete understanding of Aristotle's biological works and their relevance to modern biology should also include a deeper discussion of cause and all its layers of meaning. Similarly, eidos is clearly a unifying concept in Aristotle's physics and metaphysics and any discussion of his natural works that does not address this concept is incomplete. However, both of these topics are by themselves suitable lecture material and I have decided to avoid them in this discussion. I envy the sophomores, however, who will able to immerse themselves in Aristotle's Physics later this year and will have, therefore, a rich and ample opportunity to think about these issues. There is, among modern scientists, perhaps no more greatly-misunderstood concept that of telos as Aristotle understood it. Indeed, "teleologic" thinking is often apologized for in "serious" research seminars and can subject its user to a measure of skepticism (if not scorn) by other investigators. This is, of course, due to a misunderstanding of the concept of telos. We are, in this instance, partly at the mercy of St. Thomas Aquinas, who brilliantly engrafted Aristotelian thought (physical and metaphysical) into Christian theology. Thus, the Christian view of a beneficent Deity ordering Nature to His own (sometimes inscrutable 5 but unquestionably _beneficent) ends has clearly influenced, or tainted, the reading of Aristotle ever since. No such world view informs the Parts of Animals or the concept of telos as used in Aristotle's works in the natural sciences. As used in the Parts of Animals, telos is intended to describe the predictable culmination of natural processes. A robin's egg predictably hatches a robin. A seed predictably grows into a plant. Thus, the end of the egg is the mature robin; the end of the seed is either growth or the mature plant. These ends exist without either striving on the part of the organisms or intervention from the deity. They do, however, provide the foundation for our 4 Aristotle, Parts of Animals, trans. AL Peck. Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press, 1983. 5 " ••• where were you when I laid the foundations of the earth?" Job 7 �understanding of the egg or the seed, their logos, as Aristotle says. 6 Furthermore, while they c8n be thought of separately, telos and necessity (anangke) are clearly co-existent and inter-related, just as matter and form are. If an egg is to grow into a mature robin (its telos) it must, of necessity, have certain characteristics which will protect it during gestation (e.g., a hard shell). None of this sort of thinking, which is central to Aristotle's way of looking at living things, is completely foreign to cell biology or experimental medicine. In the example of our gene sequence, the telos of the gene is twofold: the transmission of genetic information to progeny and the encoding of information required to synthesize a protein, which, in turn, has its own its own telos. The second part of the molecular biology in which my friend in Ann Arbor was engaged required that she put her gene back into context, both literally and mentally, to discern the function of the protein encoded by the gene and factors regulating its expression in different cells. In my own career I was blessed to work with an outstanding molecular scientist (Dr. John Atkinson, now chair of the Department of Medicine at Washington University in St. Louis) who was singularly unapologetic for his use of teleologic language and thinking. From Dr. Atkinson I learned how serious scientific problems can be approached in a practical and illuminating way if the Aristotelian concept of telos is applied creatively. Indeed, posing questions in cell biology that start with telos is often the best way to start an inquiry into structure and mechanism, form and function. In this sense, telos remains the prior or primary concept in much of cell biology, just as in Aristotle's biology. 7 Let me provide some examples. In both cell and molecular biology, the discovery of new genes and/or structures, or the finding that a certain gene or protein is unexpectedly expressed in a certain cell or tissue, is one of the exciting and rewarding events in the life of any investigator. However, insight into the significance of such a finding is often provided only by an understanding of its telos. Scientists refer to this work and thoughtprocess as the elucidation of the function of the new gene or protein. This is nothing more or less than an understanding of its telos and it is considered to be an essential part of the understanding of new genes and proteins. They provide, I submit, the only means by which their biological significance can be discerned, or, if I may speak in Aristotle's terms, the telos provides rational ground, or logos, for the subsequent inquiry. That other scientists agree with my assessment of the importance of this process is measured by my friend's excitement at finding a "...function for her gene." What my colleague was asserting was the importance of the Aristotelian concept of telos in modern biology. A question that Dr. Atkinson often used to ask at the beginning of his work was, ''Why would this cell express this protein (or gene)?" Or, "Why would this cell express this protein (or gene) under these conditions?". I learned by watching an experienced scientist begin his work this way that a tremendous amount of experimental biology can be undertaken if such questions are asked and allowed to provide the rationale for a series of well-designed experiments. Thus, the concept of telos provides not only a theoretical framework which allows a scientist to understand the meaning of certain phenomena produced in the laboratory, but it also provides a valuable starting point for further investigations. In this very real sense, telos is the practical and logical starting point for the investigation, as Aristotle has pointed out. 8 Necessity (anangke), is another concept that is used in modern biological research with some of the same breadth of meaning as in Aristotle's biological works. Christianized Aristotelianism has attempted 6 Parts of Animals I, i, 639b 15-17. 7 Parts of Animals I, ~ 639b, 15. 8 Parts of Animals II (1) 646a25 - 646b5 8 �to elevate telos above necessity, maintaining that God's will and the mechanisms by which His world operates are separable in fact and in thought. This allows, among other things, provision for Jaws of nature to be suspended for the benefit of the Church, as Edward Gibbon stated. While this is a convenient world view for the structuring of a politically-powerful church on earth, it had devastating effects on the understanding of living creatures, and allowed the evolution of the concept of vitalism that so seriously stymied biological thinking in Europe into the nineteenth century should also point out that it made theology tough, too. The distinction between God's foreknowledge versus foreordination, Grace versus Free Will, etc. are innate, I believe, in this dualistic approach to Nature and Nature's God). This distinct separation of telos from anangke is clearly excluded from Aristotle's natural works, and The Parts of Animal.sin particular. Rather, anangke and telos go hand in hand, and provide a basis for the understanding of one-another. Thus, while telos is primary for Aristotle, in that it provides the framework through which biological processes are understood (again, the logos), it is also clear that both the coming-to-be and the maintenance of living things obeys the laws of anangke in the physical and logical way that Aristotle understood this term. a I have mentioned before the wistful engagement of classical (Newtonian) physics and modem biology, an engagement that is ever-prolonged while the wedding is continually postponed. I believe that there is still a yearning among many biologists to believe that, because living things adhere to the Jaws of chemistry and physics (or, more correctly, that novel laws of chemistry and physics are not required to understand either the coming-to-be or the functioning of living matter), that all of the biological sciences will be eventually be focused on understanding laws of absolute necessity which are the direct descendants and consequences of the original Big Bang. However, in many cases, this concept of absolute necessity (because "A" happened, "B" absolutely must happen) is only one of the ways in which the concept of necessity is used in biological science and medicine. Furthermore, such logical thinking is seldom the starting point in the practical world of modern medical research. Rather, modem biologists, working with concepts of structure and function (telos, if you will), are more often fruitful when they operate in the world of what may called "...conditional necessity." That is, the argument that if "A" is to be formed, then other things must also occur. For example, if health is to be produced, then certain actions are necessi~ted by the physician or the healer. This may still seem somewhat abstract, so let me use an example from my own experiences at Washington University. The complement system is a series of proteins that provide one of the important defenses of higher organisms against invading micro-organisms. However, unlike other parts of the immune system, complement proteins do not, in themselves, discriminate "self' from "non-self." Once activated, there is nothing in the biochemistry of these proteins that precludes their amplifying on and destroying host cell or tissues instead of the invading viruses or bacteria. This discovery that the complement system is non-specific was made simultaneously in St. Louis and San Diego and much of this early work was done by my mentor, Paul Levine. These discoveries led to the hypothesis that if the biochemistry of the complement proteins is such that they can activate even on host cells, then by necessity there must be some mechanism through which host cells can deactivate them. This is a very Aristotelian approach, and it was the beginning of a series of investigations, carried out in St. Louis, Baltimore, and Cleveland, that elucidated a new family of cell-surface proteins with a common genetic structure. These proteins were shown on mammalian cells but not on bacteria or viruses (at least not under normal circumstances) and were shown to deactivate complement on host cells exactly as would be predicted. An understanding of these proteins and how they function has provided new insight into rheumatic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus, as well as some understanding of how cells of the immune system are destroyed during the course of HIV infection (the latter is work from my oWn laboratory). Thus, the concept of necessity, as used in its broader, "Aristotelian" sense, provided the foundation not just for a theoretical approach to mammalian cells but for practical advances in the science of immunology. This is not to say that so-called "absolute" necessity is not used in modern biology. We know, for 9 �example, that if the pH or hydrogen ion concentration of the intracellular fluid drops below a certain "physiologic" range, that certain predictable consequences will occur to in the efficiency with which intracellular enzymes will function. We know that, eventually, prolonged lowering of intracellular pH will eventually have profound disturbance of cellular energy metabolism and eventually lead to cell death. However, in these cases, the concept of absolute necessity is still informed by the concept that the enzymes in question do, in fact, have functions that relate to their roles in cellular processes. The dysfunction of the enzymes is made more intelligible by the understanding that they are involved in a process that we call intracellular metabolism. In the absence of this understanding, we have hydrogen ions and a denatured polypeptide that can no longer catalyze the transfer of electrons. Even the most ardent Newtonian would concede that such an understanding is incomplete. These two concepts, telos and anangke, are ubiquitous in modern biology and appear to be tmavoidable. They provide the core of work appearing in peer-reviewed journals as well as an important aspect of any grant application to agencies such as the National Institutes of Health. They remain in use, as I have said, not because, in the deepest hearts, modern experimental biologists are enamored of Aristotle, but because they are unavoidable. Furthermore, they have been shown to be practically useful, especially when linked to the modern techniques of cell and molecular biology. The admission that these concepts are essential to the biological sciences is different from saying that unusual laws of chemistry and physics are required to understand living things. What I am saying, and what Aristotle has said, is that these concepts provide the framework through which the laws of chemistry and physics can be understood in living matter. I hope I have provided you, in this very brief way, with some insight into how certain ideas articulated in Aristotle's Parts of Animals remain in use in modern experimental medicine. Furthermore, I hope that I have convinced you that these ideas are not just part of a theoretical framework, but that they provide a very practical starting point for the process of modern biological research. Let me also say that I believe that if Aristotle were alive today, he would find very little in modern laboratory research that is in direct conflict with his approach to living things as articulated in the Parts of Animals. Let me close by saying a word about what modern experimental medicine has not borrowed from Aristotle and something about how this may limit, or at least define, our understanding of living things. Of all the concepts in modern biology, evolution is the one most clearly foreign to Aristotle's biology. To Aristotle, the species were permanent, more or less immutable, and eternal. To the modern biologist, species are what's left. over aft.er a process called natural selection. In its most extreme case, evolution is so totally lacking in either direction or permanence that, ultimately, the theory of natural selection is just as appropriately described as "... survival of the survivors... " rather than "... survival of the fittest." Eidos (species) and telos are conspicuously absent from modern evolutionary theory. It is thus hard to fmd common ground between evolutionary biologists and Aristotle. The two world views are clearly not compatible. However, in modern experimental medicine, the concept of evolution is, ironically, partly-informed by the concept of telos. For example, the existence of certain structures or proteins in lower animals (for example, fish) and humans is oft.en used an argument for their physiological importance. That is, structures or proteins highly-conserved through evolution are considered significant. For example, the fact that fish have complement proteins is used as an argument for the importance of this primordial wing of the immune system. To put it another way, the telos of a structure is considered vital to the extent that it is conserved in evolution. Thus, even with modem evolutionary theory as an overlay, experimental medicine still derives tremendous power from essentially-Aristotelian ideas. Another aspect of Aristotle's biology that is lacking in modem experimental medicine is its scope. By this I mean that Aristotle's physics and metaphysics are essentially inseparable, and that they are part of a system of thought that addresses human beings and their relationship to the world around them. 10 �While the world of clinical medicine may t.ake a person into many parts of the world of man and display some of the best and worst of human life, the world of experimental medicine is, in the end, neatly circwnscribed. People engaged in medical research are, in the end, focused on understanding how things work. The final goal of this is, of course, to fmd out what's happening when something doesn't work (that is, when someone is ill) so that remedies can be found. The answers given to the questions raised by modern biologists will, therefore, reflect the form in which the question was asked. That is, our answers will always only tell us how something works, not what it is or what our relationship to it should be. We are, in essence, like the Lilliputians, who could dismantle Gulliver's watch and could understood its mechanism perfectly, but were unaware of its purpose (believing, as they did, that it was the god that he worshipped). I will close as I began, with an anecdote, or actually, two anecdotes. Let me t.ake you, on a cool sunny November afternoon, into the delivery room of an upstate New York hospital, where I, a third-year medical student, am spending my first afternoon in labor and delivery. I want you to see a wet, blue infant who t.akes her first gasp, utters her first cry, and begins to wiggle and squirm, her cries becoming more vigorous with each passing second I want to see the beaming father and mother as they hold their first-born daughter, call her by her name, and put their cheeks against her soft pink skin. I also want to t.ake you into the pediatric intensive care unit on a frosty November evening. I will t.ake you to the bed of an eight-year-old boy dying of infectious complications of AIDS. I will tell you that this boy was the only child, the adopted son of an otherwise childless couple, and that I had come to respect this couple's sorrow and struggle as one of the most profoundly sad and noble chapters I had witnessed in my career. When the time came to accept that we had nothing left to offer but the prolongation of suffering, when decisions were made to remove noxious tubes and hardware, when I watched this child gasp his last breaths in the arms of his tearful parents, I understood the profound ignorance of doctors, biologists, philosophers, and clergy. My experiences at the bedside, and with birth and death in particular, have taught me that there is a great deal about life that I cannot explain. I fully understand that the method of inquiry that I have inherited by Bernard, Bacon, and Descartes was not designed to probe into the more compelling questions that raised by my experiences as a physician. Thus, while my own career remains focussed in the understanding of the human body and how it works, I remain profoundly humbled at how inadequate even a complete understanding at that level would be. For all of our knowledge and our attempts at knowledge, we... "...are here as on a darkling plain Swept with confused alarms of struggle and flight, Where ignorant armies clash by night." 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College. During the Fall and Spring semesters, lectures are given on Friday nights. Items include audio and video recordings and typescripts.<br /><br />For more information, and a schedule of upcoming lectures, please visit the <strong><a href="http://www.sjc.edu/programs-and-events/annapolis/formal-lecture-series/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">St. John's College website</a></strong>.  <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Formal Lecture Series" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=5&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection.<br /><br />A growing number of lecture recordings are also available on the St. John's College (Annapolis) Lectures podcast. Visit <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/st-johns-college-annapolis-lectures/id1695157772">Apple Podcasts</a> or <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6GDsIRqC8SWZ28AY72BsYM?si=f2ecfa9e247a456f" title="Spotify">Spotify</a> to listen and subscribe. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context formallectureseriesannapolis Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data paper Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cells and Genes Are Parts of Animals: Aristotle in the Late 20th Century Description An account of the resource Typescript of a lecture delivered on September 16, 1994, by James N. Jarvis as part of the Formal Lecture Series. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jarvis, James N. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1994-09-16 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College has been given permission to make this item available online. Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource Aristotle. De partibus animalium Cytology Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context lec Jarvis 1994 Alumni Friday night lecture https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/d29e9c045e69232e417d175ef3c2ae97.mp3 16b4f5a1c38055e7818b841ad72ee3cc Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College. During the Fall and Spring semesters, lectures are given on Friday nights. Items include audio and video recordings and typescripts.<br /><br />For more information, and a schedule of upcoming lectures, please visit the <strong><a href="http://www.sjc.edu/programs-and-events/annapolis/formal-lecture-series/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">St. John's College website</a></strong>.  <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Formal Lecture Series" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=5&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection.<br /><br />A growing number of lecture recordings are also available on the St. John's College (Annapolis) Lectures podcast. Visit <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/st-johns-college-annapolis-lectures/id1695157772">Apple Podcasts</a> or <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6GDsIRqC8SWZ28AY72BsYM?si=f2ecfa9e247a456f" title="Spotify">Spotify</a> to listen and subscribe. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context formallectureseriesannapolis Sound A resource primarily intended to be heard. Examples include a music playback file format, an audio compact disc, and recorded speech or sounds. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data wav Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 01:10:07 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Argument Not Less But More Heroic: Milton's Advent'rous Song in <em>Paradise Lost</em> Description An account of the resource Audio recording of a lecture delivered on February 11, 2005, by Thomas May as part of the Formal Lecture Series. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource May, Thomas Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-02-11 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College has been given permission to make this item available online. Type The nature or genre of the resource sound Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource mp3 Subject The topic of the resource Milton, John, 1608-1674. Paradise lost Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context LEC_May_Thomas_2005-02-11_ac Relation A related resource <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/show/7992" title="Typescript">Typescript</a> Friday night lecture Tutors https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/ec88d855dd80f9b808bbae2991e9e475.pdf 2b3233664d7c4635f16f42b86b0c5e17 PDF Text Text Thursday January 18 2024 The St. John’s Collegian A Gadfly Publication Vol. II Issue 2 Printed Thursdays in Annapolis Editorial All college seminar held on do the right thing Against the New Housing Price System Seminar Scheduled to Commemorate Martin Luther King Day, Saw High Tutor Attendance Often, it seems as if a new policy decision by the College administration is well intentioned but was not properly thought through, particularly in the impact it might have on the student body. The new housing price tier system, recently unveiled by the College, is a perfect example of this. It has the potential to cause much harm to our campus community, while also does not seem to have any actual benefit besides increasing College housing revenue. There is a principle of common experience at the College that I worry the new pricing system endangers. With the requirement to live on campus for our first two years here, a community is created of people who not only read the same books, but who live in the same buildings, and eat the same food. A special kind of unity is created, one that really brings together our small, close-knit community, and which is so solid that it is kept together even after people begin to move off campus Junior year. As of now, the differing quality of dorms does not hinder this campus cohesion: if someone complains about rats in a dorm, there is sympathy, as anyone could have ended up there. Likewise, jealousy over good dorm conditions in the suburbs only goes so far; it is simply taken as a privilege of having spent more years on campus, and as a sign of luck in the housing lottery. However, with the change from flat rates for housing to ones based on income, I worry that this cohesion could be damaged. If someone’s housing condition is determined by how much they are able to pay for a dorm, there is not a sense that everyone is on the same boat: on the contrary, there is a sense some paid for a much nicer educational experience than others. The argument that the difference in prices is too small to cause this kind of socio-economic stratification is ridiculous: if someone already has difficulty affording college, which many Johnnies do, every dollar counts, including the $400 between a Chase double and a Gilliam split double, without even mentioning the $2,550 that will divide some residents of Paca. Students already sometimes go to ridiculous lengths to save a few dollars on expenses, it is perfectly reasonable to presume they would do the same if they needed to on housing, and the divide between those that do need to save, and those that don’t, would grow much more visible. There are also many issues that are (Cont. on Page 2) This semester’s first All-College seminar was unusual in two ways. First, it was not hosted by the SCI, who has traditionally hosted such events, with organization instead being lead by Assistant Dean Robert Abbott. Secondly, the seminar was on a film, a medium which has not been discussed before at an All-College seminar. The movie, Spike Lee’s 1989 Do the Right Thing, shown at 4 pm on January 12th, the day of the seminar, with the actual conversation occurring at 7:30, in the place of a lecture. The screening, which was attended by several dozen students, as well as a handful of tutors, was slightly delayed by audio problems in the FSK, but after moving to the Hodson Room, the remainder Lee’s beautiful, chaotic, poignant and thought-provoking work was shown. The seminar itself was slightly better attended, although many students who came to watch the movie did not come to the seminar. Instead, a large number of tutors turned out for the discussion. There were enough people to split the participants into three groups, led by Abbott, tutor George Russel and tutor emeritus Jonathan Tuck. Russel began by asking an opening question that informed the conversation for all the groups, focused around the statement made by da Mayor which gives the movie its name: What does it mean to do the right thing? Groups then split off, with each seminar leader asking another opening question. The seminar ran for an hour and a half, with participants congregating over coffee, tea and snacks afterwards to continue discussing the film. Abbott explained that this seminar was intended to commemorate, and spark discussion about Martin Luther King Jr. Day, which took place the following Monday. “In the past few years, the dean has ended up asking the SCI to have their second semester all-college seminar on texts that had something to do with slavery or the civil rights movement. This seemed like an uncomfortable arrangement since the SCI should be able to have two all-college seminars every year on whatever they decide. Also, last year, the president formed a committee of staff, faculty, and students to plan an event around MLK day. I volunteered for this committee and my contribution was to hold a Tuesday night seminar on a poem by Gwendolyn Brooks, 'The Chicago Defender Sends a Man to Little Rock, Fall 1957,' but only a few students attended. The then- dean and I talked this over and decided to have a separate all-college seminar on a Friday to give the event more prominence.” The College does not commemorate Martin Luther King Jr. Day, a holiday created to honor civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. shortly after his assassination, as part of a general policy not to respect religious or civil holidays. ““We don’t recognize any of the holidays, it just so happens that long weekend often coincides with a holiday. I just really value that. I feel like at the college should honor any individual’s practices, and as an institution, we should be pretty careful to remain open and neutral… I think about this in terms of Herodotus. Particular cultures are important, because they’re a way to understand what’s universal… I want people to be able to be themselves in the classroom and out at the college, but we also need to say, this place would come apart at the seams if we’re improperly recognizing some individuals and not others,” explained Abbott. “At the same time, we have found ways to use the occasion to do something that is good, that is harmonious or consonant with what we’re doing at the college anyway.” The choice of seminar subject was proposed by Xena Hitz, a tutor. “Ms. Hitz suggested discussing the film, Do the Right Thing,” said Abbott. “I thought this was an excellent suggestion for many reasons. The film speaks to everyone; it asks the viewer difficult, pressing questions about race, community, history, and violence, without giving easy answers; it puts Martin Luther King Jr. in conversation with Malcolm X. There are a number of reasons I thought it would be good for a seminar. And for all those same reasons, I saw this all-college seminar as continuous with conversations that develop out of reading works on the program e.g. by Tocqueville, Twain, Melville, Conrad, Lincoln, Douglas, Washington, and Du Bois, among others…Human freedom is at stake; I can think of few things as serious.” Holding a conversation on a film posed a new challenge, but one that was successfully met by most participants in the seminars. In the seminar that I participated in, the conversation hovered in generalities at first, before plunging straight into a thorough and interesting analysis of cinematographic choices, of the role of characters, and of the (Cont. on page 2) This Week in Seminar Upcoming Events: Freshman: 1/18: Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, VII; VIII, 1–6, 45–end 1/22: Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, IV, 75–end; V, 1–26, 84–116; VI Sophomores: 1/18: Dante: Divine Comedy, Purgatorio XIX–XXXIII 1/22: Dante: Divine Comedy, Paradiso I–XVII Juniors: 1/18: Hume: Treatise of Human Nature (see official list for selections) 1/22: Hume: Treatise of Human Nature (see official list for selections) Seniors: Essay writing Period Friday 1/19 5 p.m., Mitchell Museum: Sampling a Sampler Sampling Exhibit opening Saturday 1/20 11 a.m., Studio Theater: Careers in Law Alumni Panel 9 p.m., Boathouse: Pajama Waltz 9 p.m., McDowell Great Hall: Pangaea Lunar New Years Party Wednesday 1/24 2:30 p.m., Hodson room: Hodson Internship info session - 4 p.m., Conversation Room: Eams Power of Ten film discussion. Friday Night Lecture: Concert by New York Polyphony, 8 p.m. in the FSK Page 1 �Thursday January 18, 2024 St. John’s Collegian Vol. II. Issue 2 First measurable snow in two years covers campus: Two Hour Delay Implemented By the time this writer exited Mellon for the first time On Monday, January 15th at 11:30, he saw the snow which had started in the morning had picked up once more, and a thin layer was beginning to accumulate on the grass, although not yet in paved areas. By the time he returned to campus around 2:15, the snow had not stopped, and it began sticking even to warmer brick and asphalt. Speculation began, buzzing around campus from eager freshmen to weary Juniors: will they cancel seminar? Do they ever even do that? When classes ended for the day, the snow was finally great deal of frolicking going on, and a few snowballs being tossed around. After receiving a tip-off that a big scoop might be found on back campus, your writer continued down towards the creek to find Johnnies whizzing down the hill on sleds, trash can lids, cardboard, garbage bags, and their own backs. The enthusiasm of a child before a snow-day in 3rd grade was in the air, and everyone was feeling it. Walking along, this writer crossed paths with a very enthusiastic Johnnie who perfectly summed this up: “It’s snowing, it’s snowing!” he repeatedly declared, while giving energetic hugs to all who went by. By the 7:30 seminar time, there was no news about any delays or cancellations, although the snow continued to fall as the campus made its way towards Mellon and McDowell. During seminar, however, an Housing (Cont. from Page 1) less obvious, but likely to cause problems likely not foreseen by the College administration. For example, this new pricing system would make housing selection far more fraught. If there is higher demand for the cheaper dorms, as I suspect there will be, there may be less affordable housing available for people lower on the list, who may be penalized and have to pay more, perhaps even more than they can afford. What happens if someone can only afford a Group B double, but when they get their chance to pick there are only Group A doubles and split doubles left? Likewise, this causes a problem for dorms set aside for specific purposes. In the past, Spector has been designated as a quiet dorm, and one floor has been set aside as an alcohol-free floor. Would people who prefer quiet, or to be further away from alcohol, have to pay extra for that? It is wonderful that the college tries to accommodate these needs, but it would be a shameful undermining of what they seem to be trying to accomplish to have access to them determined by price. The reasoning given for this change in housing pricing is that people “have been asking for it.” I would like to ask who these people are. I have not met a single student who speaks in favor of this system for reallocating housing. The argument that many other institutions price dorms this way is also a bad one, since many small liberal arts colleges do not, and that something being done by other institutions has never been a reason in itself for St. John’s to do something. I suspect the true motivation for this change is not to respond to some swell of student requests for this system, but a desire to raise housing prices without upsetting people as much. At some level, I understand this; prices need to be adjusted for inflation, even though they are already very high. However, if this way of raising prices is likely to cause harm to our Polity, I think the decision to implement this system should be reconsidered. email was sent out by Aly Gontang, Vice-President of Finance and Operations: “The Annapolis Campus will be opening at 10:30 am on Tuesday, January 16, 2024, to allow facilities staff time to clear parking lots and walkways – and to allow time for staff, students, and faculty to travel safely to campus.” Gontang explained that this decision was made according to set College policies. “When we are experiencing or expecting inclement weather, we usually coordinate early in the morning to determine road conditions, how long it may take to clear parking lots and walkways, and if there are any other operational challenges to opening on time. We try to coordinate between 4:30am-5am to have facilities or public safety staff check on campus conditions – so we can post a notification no later than 6am by campus alert, email, and website update. In the case of [Monday’s] weather, with the extremely poor conditions we monitored into the evening last night (some of us were driving home late after work after 8pm) – and with the forecast of alternating freezing rain and snow combined with low temperatures during the ‘rush hour’ when most are driving into campus – we posted the notice last night following many of the county schools and agencies. When we expect inclement conditions – just to also call out the wonderful dedication and care of the Bon Seminar (Cont. from Page 1) between the events on the screen and pressing concerns about communities relevant in our own lives. Abbott said that in his seminar, he also found success in the challenge of discussing a movie. “I really love film. Scott Buchanan, one of the founders of the program, thought film was going to have a place in the cannon. One of my worries about this seminar is that we would treat the film simply as a text, and only discuss ideas. I feel like my seminar didn’t fall into that, which was nice… it was much more about the way ideas were represented through the film and the character who speak about them. It was much closer to a discussion of the film as a film.” Coming away from these seminars, and into the discussions over coffee and tea, many participants expressed a wide range of thoughts sparked by the movie. By providing a space to reflect on race, discrimination, representation, identity, violence and resistance, and community, the seminar provided a place to touch on many matters that often don’t come up in day-to-day classes. The conversations begun that night, however, are still very much alive as this paper is going to print, at least amongst those who attended that seminar. Appetit staff - the dining service staff will oftentimes nearby accommodations or even stay overnight find in available residence rooms, that are separated from students, to ensure food service remains on time.” This delay, however, did not mean that classes were canceled. While operations delays are determined by the Gontang, academic delays are decided by the Assistant Dean, who instead sent out an email saying that class cancellations would be determined by individual tutors, who could best determine whether they could safely reach campus. The possibility of classes, however, did not stop students from celebrating the snow with Johnnie passion. A massive, all-campus snowball fight developed on the quad after seminar, with this reporter being targeted for repeated pelting by a frequent Gadfly and Collegian contributor who often goes by his somewhat vulgar initials. After this spirited combat, this writer set off on a walk with someone rather special into an Annapolis transformed into a silent, white mirror of itself. While the following morning, classes resumed as usual, (albeit with some confusion as to whether they would begin at 10:30), the spell cast by the snow on this campus will be fondly remembered for years to come. El’ad Nichols-Kaufman About the St. John’s Collegian The St. John’s Collegian is the weekly newspaper of St. John’s College Annapolis. We work to bring quick and timely coverage of important events going on, to help develop a more informed student body. If you’re searching for more in-depth investigations and reporting, as well as essays, art and culture, check out the Gadfly, our affiliated publication, which is published once every three weeks. Want to submit an article? We always need more writers, whether for opinion or reporting! Submissions for news articles should be between 400600 words, while opinion should be kept short at 350 words. Just email eanicholskaufman@sjc.edu with your article, and we will work to get it in print! Longer form articles and more in-depth exploration of ideas should go to the Gadfly, which accepts submissions at lbriner@sjc.edu. Contributors for this issue: El’ad Nichols-Kaufman, Editor El’ad Nichols-Kaufman An interview for this article was conducted by Meliha Anthony for the Communications office. We would like to thank Communications for helping us with our reporting, and Anthony for supporting journalism on the Annapolis campus. Aphorism of the Week: "Does it make sense?" Says an American. "Does it become a word?" Says a Korean. I am clearly the one who is making sense, but who is the one making the word? Page 2 You may have noticed this edition only has one contributor. This, to put it mildly, is a problem. Not only is it better for the College to have a diversity of view represented instead of just my ramblings, but it is also not sustainable for me: I cannot write a full edition of the Collegian every week. If you want to see this paper continue to exist, and to continue to bring up to date news reporting to the Polity, please send in some submissions! You can write about anything: enrollment trends, tutor retention, crazy moments in your seminar, intramural games. Just write. The Polity needs everyone to pitch in if we are to remain engaged and well informed. �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource <em>The St. John's Collegian</em> Description An account of the resource A student newspaper of St. John's College. <em>The St. John's Collegian</em> began publication in 2023 and is affiliated with <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/collections/show/16"><em>The Gadfly</em></a>. <br /><br />Published weekly on Thursday, with the exception of weeks <em>The Gadfly </em>is published. <br /><br />Earlier publications with the title <em>The Collegian </em>and <em>The St. John's Collegian </em>are available in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/collections/show/26"><em>The Collegian Collection</em></a>.<br /><br />Click on Items in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=69&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">The St. John's Collegian Collection</a> to view and sort all items in the collection. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, Md. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SJCCollegian Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data pdf Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 2 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource St. John's Collegian, January 18, 2024 Description An account of the resource Volume 2, issue 2 of the St. John's Collegian, published January 18, 2024. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2024-01-18 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College holds the rights to this publication. Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.)--Periodicals Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SJCCollegian_vol2_issue2_2024-01-18 Student publication The Collegian The Gadfly https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/2e54def6d8e5d939b771a030611a8af8.pdf fab76a4b9ebd3709b61359ce4e81d9e5 PDF Text Text Thursday January 11 2024 The St. John’s Collegian A Gadfly Publication Vol. II Issue 1 Printed Thursdays in Annapolis From the polity College releases plans for new housing price structure For the Improvement of Collegium Tiered Housing Price System to go into Effect Fall 2024, Campus Dorms to See Price Increase Collegium is one of the most wonderful institutions we have on this campus. It is an excellent way to end the semester, getting to hear the beautiful result of the hard work campus musical groups have done, and seeing the wide variety of campus talent, while also gathering one last time as a whole Polity. However, this beautiful moment of community togetherness is often marred by simply having it run too long. Four hours is too much for any performance, even if all the performers are very skilled. With this length, people get antsy, you have large numbers leave the hall before it is finished, and few people stay for the other great campus traditions like caroling. The good news is that this can be easily remedied. The students running Collegium are good at what they do, and with a few changes, could help remedy the problem of excessive length. While I recognize that actively screening performances for quality is off the table, I would like to propose five easy improvements in the form of rules for performers, which would reduce the number of acts, and thus overall length: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. No group should be allowed to perform more than one piece. No person may be in more than one solo, duet or trio: we should try to give as many people the chance to perform as possible. Solos should be discouraged. While many of our solo performers are incredibly skilled, Collegium should be a space where campus groups share with the polity, it is not a private recital. A possible exception to this should be poetry and writing. No group should perform with backing tracks: while some of these performances are quite good, the focus of Collegium should be on our campus’ artists. The program should be adhered to, and organizers should avoid having new groups added in who were not originally registered. Hopefully, by adopting some of these recommendations, or other rules, the organizers of Collegium will be able to make the event more enjoyable for us all. If you disagree with me on these recommendations, or have ideas of your own, please write a letter in response, we need more opinion articles! El’ad Nichols-Kaufman Shortly before winter break, an all-campus email was sent out notifying the Polity of a major change to the pricing system for dormitories on Campus. The change was first announced at an earlier Committee on Student Life Forum, but the full details were only sent out on December 7th. This email announced implementation of a system widely used in other institutions of higher education at St. John’s, with pricing for each dorm adjusted for the quality of each type of room and the building that they are in. “Since I’ve been here for four years, every year, I have received a couple questions, as have my colleagues Ms. Lico and Ms. Waters, from students themselves, as well as parents, about why every room is the same price when clearly some rooms are much newer than others,” explained Jen Cline, Coordinator of Student Services. In response to these concerns, the College administration looked into the issue, and decided to implement a new pricing policy, aimed at making sure students pay for the quality they receive. “The difference between some of the dorm rooms and their prices just helps some of the prices be more equitable across campus,” continued Cline. Many students on campus, however, have raised concerns that changing the pricing structure will actually lead to more inequity on campus, with an unhealthy social dynamic developing between students who can afford more expensive, nicer dorms, and those who cannot. Up to this point, the divide in dorm quality has mostly been an underclassman/upperclassman divide, and a change from that to a potentially more economically based divide concerns some. When asked about this, Cline responded that the price differences are not significant enough to cause problems with social dynamics. “I don’t think it will make much of a difference than how singles are more expensive than doubles. I’ve rarely ever seen a student choose a double just to save a couple extra hundred dollars.” The new system divides the dorms into eight tiers: four tiers of singles, three tiers of doubles, and quads. The most expensive dorm rooms will be a special category of singles, which will be in what are now the lofted doubles in Paca-Carroll. These four dorm rooms will be rearranged to allow for a divided living and sleeping space, and will cost $10,000 per year, or $5,000 a semester, although Cline noted that the way This Week in Seminar Freshman: - 1/11: Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, II, 55–78; III, 1–87; IV, 1–74 - 1/15: Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, IV, 75–end; V, 1–26, 84–116; VI Sophomores: - 1/11: Dante: Divine Comedy, Inferno XVIII–XXXIV - 1/15: Dante: Divine Comedy, Purgatorio I–XVIII Juniors: - 1/11: George Eliot: Middlemarch - 1/15: George Eliot: Middlemarch Seniors: - Essay writing Period Friday Night Lecture: All College Seminar on Spike Lee’s Do the Right Thing, Great Hall, 7:30 pm Page 1 the rooms are laid out means that they can be reverted to doubles should any trouble arise, or if there should be demand for them as doubles from students. The next tier of singles, in Gilliam, Spector, Campbell, Fielding and Pinkney 1, will cost $8,550 per year, while tier C, in Chase, Pinkney 2-4, and Paca will cost $8,300. Split doubles in Gilliam and Spector Halls will cost $7,850, while doubles in Gilliam, Spector, Campbell, Fielding and Pinkney 1 will cost $7,600. Doubles in Chase, Pinkney 2-4, and Paca will be $7,450. Quads, which include the Paca loft and new rooms in Campbell, will cost $7,670. The current price of a single on campus is $8,054, and the current price of a double is $7,340, meaning all housing prices will be increased by between $246 and $510. For upperclassmen, the process of selecting rooms will be the same as in previous years, with selection taking place first for Seniors, then Juniors and finally Sophomores, with the order of selection chosen through a lottery. Cline explained that the system for freshmen room assignments will also not be changed drastically. “The prices will be made clear, and if they have a preference, they can do what is already an option, which is to request a specific dorm in the housing questionnaire, which every student fills out to be paired as roommates… That could be how they would request a hall if they wanted one that is less expensive than another.” Freshmen will continue to be in Humphreys, Fielding and Paca Halls, while the newly renovated Campbell Hall will primarily be for upperclassmen. The renovations in Campbell are on track for completion by the beginning of the Summer, with drywall already being installed before winter break. “The rooms will definitely be done by the end of the semester,” said Cline. “The rooms are the first priority.” The basement area, featuring the Coffeeshop and bookstore, is also important for the project, but the completion of the rooms will be prioritized. With the addition of the rooms in Campbell, and the return of some rooms that are currently triples to their previous status as doubles, there will be a total of 390 beds available on campus, a much higher number than previously, which should allow for more upperclassmen to stay on campus if they choose. El’ad Nichols-Kaufman Upcoming Events: Tuesday 1/16 - 3:45 pm, Hodson Room: Career Services Wayfinding Workshop It’s a quiet second week back on campus! Look out for next issue for more information on upcoming events in Annapolis as the semester continues to pick up steam. �Thursday January 11, 2024 St. John’s collegian Vol. II. Issue 1 Cowards, Every Last One of You, All Cowards: Or: A Better Gadfly Dearest cowards, On the street, in the hallways, at parties, people say to me: “Hey I liked your articles in the Gadfly. Have you ever thought about writing on [topic which clearly interests them and not me]?” Any time anything even remotely funny happens in one of my classes, I’ll get a knowing look from someone across the table inevitably followed by: “You should write about that in the Gadfly.” Woe is me! Constantly getting good ideas for articles! (My own fault really: I write three god damn articles for every single issue. It gets to the point where even tutors tease me for using our college newspaper as my own personal playground.) And you know for a fact that I am a megalomaniacal narcissist who loves the attention being solely on me, but my f*cking editors won’t let me write even more articles per issue. So let me ask something of you, sweet cowards: write for the Gadfly. Don’t do it for the sake of school spirit or civic duty or art. Do it for all the wrong reasons: do it for your own ego (I know half the bitches at this school want to be writers); do it because you’re tired of reading Bennett Scott, Luke The yellow coffee shop I have been sitting in the coffee shop for a few hours now. I am not sure how many, but I am alone. It is a rare treat to get the whole place to myself, but I am starting to get a little nervous. Though I really have no reason to be. It is nice to be in the coffee shop alone. With it being so dark and wet outside, and I am fairly sure I caught a cold on the way home from break, it is nice to be somewhere quiet and warm. The lighting is very warm here. A comforting amber, not really fluorescent at all. I think it has something to do with the new paint job. All the previously white and sterile walls are now a soft yellow color. It is soothing. I like looking at it. Yet, the more I look at it, the more nervous I feel. The light casts these odd shadows on the wall now. Especially around the fireplace. If I let my eyes focus on one place for too long it almost seems like the bricks are moving. Swirling around into hypnotic whorls. The white of the baseboards seems like it is bleeding up into the walls, and the chalk dust on the floor is flowing about as if blown by an unfelt wind. I have been sitting in the coffee shop for many hours now. The walls feel like they are pressing in, and out. Undulating like the stomach of some great beast. The light is still playing tricks on my eyes. The shadows are moving across the lemony walls, they almost look like human figures. I think that they might be. I'm almost sure of it actually. There is someone in the yellow walls of the coffee shop. They are trying to get out, to escape the canary-colored bars of their prison. I approach the wall. Scrabbling at the paint with my fingers, I need to release them. The light keeps shifting and I keep scratching. I break through the paint, a layer of drywall, I push past the studs of McDowell. I emerge out of the darkness into the light on the other side of the yellow yellow walls. I am sitting in the coffee shop. Briner, Bennett Scott, Luker Briner; do it because if you don’t this entire publication will succumb to the inevitable sludge of boring mediocrity that inevitably consumes all such uncontested empires. 6. 7. 8. Look, I know you’re worried about how long it’ll take (a good article takes thirty minutes drunk and one hour sober, no more) and about not having anything decent to write on, so I’ll make it easy; here’s a baker’s dozen of article ideas that people have pitched around me that someone needs to write: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. An advice column (multiple people have said they will. No one has.) An admonishment of the seniors for not getting in relationships. A series of out-of-pocket quotes from tutors (a game where you have to match quote to tutor?) Actual investigative journalism into the power structures of the college. A Joseph Smith-esc series of found tablets telling the real story of the New Program’s founding. A little New year’s sonnet Like snowflakes falling light upon the ground, the year in silent rolling passes o’er, turning over days without a sound and, sighing, turning hours all the more. Like drops which drip with sopping coat of rain, the times with weight of ages slip in rule 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Dear Incels of the College. A meta-Johnnie typology (every semester we get typologies/taxonomies of Johnnies: why not a taxonomy of taxonomies?) A declaration of the rights of students (anyone should be able to get up to the board during any class. Even during Spinoza seminars. Fight me on it.) A dialogue between Socrates and Bad Bunny. Interviews with SJC legends like the PubSafe staff and the Dining Hall workers. The Classiflieds (Classifieds with an SJC twist). A stream of consciousness story from the POV of a middie entering an SJC Waltz for the first time. An analysis of which St. John we are named after. I have a dozen more article ideas of my own which you can come accost me for in person. Just write one, cowards. Cause I may be your one but I do not want to be your only. B.S. About the St. John’s Collegian The St. John’s Collegian is the weekly newspaper of St. John’s College Annapolis. We work to bring quick and timely coverage of important events going on, to help develop a more informed student body. If you’re searching for more in-depth investigations and reporting, as well as essays, art and culture, check out the Gadfly, our affiliated publication, which is published once every three weeks. in bright mosaic when the fire is fierce, Want to submit an article? We always need more writers, whether for opinion or reporting! Submissions for news articles should be between 400-600 words, while opinion should be kept short at 350 words. Just email eanicholskaufman@sjc.edu with your article, and we will work to get it in print! Longer form articles and more in-depth exploration of ideas should go to the Gadfly, which accepts submissions at lbriner@sjc.edu. the ticks and sequent tocks of clocks suspend Contributors for this issue: the brazen bells that morn and even pierce— El’ad Nichols-Kaufman, Editor and puddle bigly in successive train and under bearded shadows rise to pool. Like sunlit leaves how off the bough descend The thrush and wren together sing their round like snowflakes falling light upon the ground. B.S. Andy Manne Tarik Mahmud Tarik Mahmud Aphorism of the Week: Ashes are the best fertilizer for new plants. Are corpses the best fertilizer for new men? A.M. Page 2 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource <em>The St. John's Collegian</em> Description An account of the resource A student newspaper of St. John's College. <em>The St. John's Collegian</em> began publication in 2023 and is affiliated with <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/collections/show/16"><em>The Gadfly</em></a>. <br /><br />Published weekly on Thursday, with the exception of weeks <em>The Gadfly </em>is published. <br /><br />Earlier publications with the title <em>The Collegian </em>and <em>The St. John's Collegian </em>are available in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/collections/show/26"><em>The Collegian Collection</em></a>.<br /><br />Click on Items in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=69&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">The St. John's Collegian Collection</a> to view and sort all items in the collection. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, Md. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SJCCollegian Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data pdf Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 2 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource St. John's Collegian, January 11, 2024 Description An account of the resource Volume 2, issue 1 of the St. John's Collegian, published January 11, 2024. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2024-01-11 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College holds the rights to this publication. Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.)--Periodicals Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SJCCollegian_vol2_issue1_2024-01-11 Student publication The Collegian The Gadfly https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/c2dacafc270b5463f3dd60bca2589513.pdf 85f086662d9e0e8a8ca1b9f4709c49be PDF Text Text Thursday December 7 2023 The St. John’s Collegian A Gadfly Publication Vol. I Issue 9 Printed Thursdays in Annapolis From the polity Fall 2023: the Collegian’s inaugural Semester in review A Message from the Randall Worms Looking Back on the First Three Months of the St. Jon’s Collegian, and Looking Forward to the Paper’s Future To the Polity: It has come to our attention that there has been an attempt from residents of Randall Hall 2 to suppress the reality of our plight under the guise of “privacy.” Let the story be set straight. We are the worms. We are the native inhabitants of the Randall 2 showers and refuse to be ignored any longer. In mid-August of this year our modest homes became overrun with human beings who have incited violence towards us. We have been wiped away and flushed down drains. We have been smashed. We have been bleach-bombed. We have had the higher powers of Buildings & Grounds called on us, all in a desperate attempt to eradicate us from our rightful place in the showers. We understand we are not the most beautiful creatures. But if you think it’s traumatic to shower with us, imagine how we feel. Somehow, we are the invaders, not you all, the ones entering our homes— naked, mind you—and attempting to wash us away or crush us underfoot. There are families who have been living on these tiles for generations. Childhood friends have been mutilated by your cruel tactics, and we have had enough. No longer will we suffer in silence. This message is for the aggressors of Randall 2: we won’t be gotten rid of that easily. We have and will continue to survive your assassination attempts and will be exacting our revenge shortly. Stay vigilant. Sincerely, The worms Editor’s Note: This letter was submitted anonymously, and as a publication we cannot speak to whether or not any worms do actually reside in the Randall Two showers, and as to whether or not they can write in English. However, if there were worms, and if they could write in English, a letter from them would be so remarkable, it would be worth publishing here merely on the chance that it may really be written by worms. When I first decided to start the Collegian, it seemed like the task ahead of me was particularly daunting. I recognized the need for a more frequent campus publication, but also saw that with our small student body, it would be difficult to find enough writers to keep up the kind of regular reporting I was hoping for. More than that, I saw the task of keeping myself on a weekly schedule as a challenging one, and a difficult one to enforce for Johnnies, who are notoriously bad at deadlines. The task ahead of me seemed large, and it did turn out to be so. For some issues, such as this one, I did struggle to get enough contributors, not for lack of occurrences on campus, but for the nearly universal lack of time that all Johnnies, including myself, suffer from. Likewise, I often found myself cutting precariously close to my own deadlines, although fortunately almost all of the paper’s other contributors were far more punctual than I was. However, despite all these difficulties, the paper took off, and largely successfully. Certainly, there were no ends of spelling, grammar, and printing errors (largely due to my editorial procrastination), but news was reported on, opinions were presented, and miscellaneous bits of commentary and cryptic aphorisms were spread amongst the Polity. Most of this success is due to the paper’s hard-working team of contributors. We had, in the nine issues since the beginning of publication in September, sixteen different contributors, including, in order of the first publication their articles appeared in, Caleb Briggs, Lainey Rendelman, William Marchman, Augustus Pananas, Georgia Green, Natalie Goldman, Semyon Andruschenko, Louis Rosenberg, Ron Haflidson, Andy Manne, Jack Huntley, Susan Paalman, and Molly Sprout, not to mention the anonymous antismoking crusader, their rival J.S., and the Randall Worms. I must sincerely thank each and every one of these people for their contributions- without them, the Collegian could not exist. In particular, I would like to thank Briggs, Goldman and Manne, who all contributed more than once and helped keep the paper running. In total, the paper had 36 articles this semester: eleven opinion pieces, in the form of letters to the editor, editorials or just very short, opinionated essay about assorted nonsense; nineteen news articles, ranging from reporting on the College Creek Connector to a student attending two seminars, four arts features, on the Mitchell Museum or KWP shows, and then whatever this article and the first introductory piece in the first issue could be classified as. With all this, the newspaper covered important stories. Looking back on the semester’s headlines serves as a sort of summary of the year: September gives us the summer BVG meeting and the College Creek Connector, DC Budgeting, and, most importantly, the incessant ringing of bells during seminar. In October, dialogue on the bells continued alongside the official reopening of Mellon and Public Safety’s Cleary Report, the Polka and Limbo competitions and the DC Budget Omnibus Bill. November continued to be just as busy, with another BVG meeting, a tutor walkout over pay, a suspicious item leading to Mellon being evacuated, and the College Historical Taskforce. In different ways, each and every one of these stories is important to the Polity, and many of them, such as the BVG meetings or the College Creek Connector, might never have gotten any notice had there not been articles written about them. To me with all the challenges the Collegian has faced, the fact that at the end of the day the Polity has become, even just a little, better informed thanks to the work of the Collegian, makes me motivated enough to keep this paper going to next semester, next year, and hopefully further into the future. However, this will not be possible without other people’s help. If you are interested in covering anything, whether it be local Annapolis politics, College administrative decisions, Intramurals, campus music and art scenes, or anything at all, please send in articles! The more regular contributors we have, the better we can keep up the timely, efficient and informative publication of the Collegian, and the more interesting we can make this paper. Save the Polity from having to read any more “year in review” summaries from me- find a topic, and just write! It doesn’t have to be long, it doesn’t have to be complicated, all we need here are articles on things people care about, and I know that things like that are not at all rare on this passionate, busy campus. Farewell until next semester, El’ad Nichols-Kaufman This Week in Seminar Upcoming Events: Friday Night Lecture: - 7 pm, Great Hall: Summerfield Live Tuesday 12/12 - 7 pm, Great Hall: Collegium and Assistant Dean’s Winter Party Freshman: - 12/7: Euripides: Medea - 12/11: Plato: Symposium, Beginning–198A Sophomores: - 12/7: Christian Creeds, see official list; Thomas Aquinas: Summa Theologiae, Prologue; Prima Pars (First Part), see official list - 12/11: Thomas Aquinas: Summa Theologiae, Prima Pars (First Part), see official list Juniors and Seniors: - Preceptorials KWP’s production of the Importance of Being Earnest Page 1 Friday 12/8 - 7:30 pm, FSK: The Importance of Being Earnest Saturday, 12/9 7:30 pm, FSK: The Importance of Being Earnest - 10 pm, Great Hall: Pangaea Just Dance Party Sunday 12/10 �Thursday December 7, 2023 St. John’s Collegian Vol. I. Issue 9 Delegate Council semester ends, Shawamreh elected Dc president End of the Year for Delegate Council Featured Much Legislative Action, Planning for Future Budgeting, and Contested Officer Elections The end of the fall 2023 session was a busy end of the year for the Delegate Council, which in the past has slowed down at the end of budgeting season. This year, however, the council shifted towards working on legislation aimed at improving its budgeting process and better representing student voice to the College administration. Two committees were formed for this purpose: the archives committee and the budgeting committee. The archives committee, which this writer headed in his capacity as DC Secretary, reviewed current acts of council, and looked to find ways to improve them both through amendments and by writing new acts. The archives committee brought forward three pieces of legislation: an amendment to the archives act, to make DC proceedings more accessible to the Polity, as well as two new acts. The first of these, the succession act, outlines what happens if both the President and Secretary are unable to lead a meeting. The second was the new Club Responsibility Act, which formalizes the DC’s recommendation that new clubs receive $500 in their first budget and requires them to submit an official request do so, as well as have the budget passed by a 2/3 majority of the DC. allocation process and give the Treasurer discretion as to decide when budgets should be heard, to allow for more urgent budgets to be heard faster; an amendment to the Budget Role Clarification Act, to help distinguish between emergency and supplemental budgets; and a new act of council, the High-Budget Sports Club act, which provides new guidelines for clubs like Polo or Jiu-Jitsu. The budgeting committee, headed by treasurer Grace Jang, looked to address problems that have arisen from the Council’s often confusing budgeting rules, and pass acts of council resolving them. Amendments provided by this committee included a reworking of the Agora Act, which creates a fund any student project for the benefit of the whole Polity can request money from; amendments to the Allocations Procedure Codification Act, to streamline check Elections were also held for the officers and freshman delegates. The Secretary and Polity Herald’s races were uncontested, with incumbents El’ad NicholsKaufman and Rylee Bain being reelected, while in the Treasurer election, Alexander Paden won in a race against Rachel Rozsa, and in the Presidential election, Ali Shawamreh won, running against Lainey Rendelman. El’ad Nichols-Kaufman Behind All that Gadfly BS A Psychological Analysis of Mr. Bennett Scott [Note: Mr. Scott has forbidden this article from being printed, but we shall not be silenced.] Is he a madman, a prophet of modern decay, or simply the weird roommate of Ben Maier who makes those videos? Who really is B.S.? Bennett Scott, man of many wiles, is known around the St. John’s College campus as the archon of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, A Senior, and turtleneck aficionado; lately, he has emerged in the polity consciousness as the sole pursuer of what he deems “SJC Mysteries.” His main output, however, is satire, always signed with his initials: B.S. Bennett Scott...B.S....Based on what he writes, it’s enough to make any good wannabe psychologist wonder whether Mr. Scott would do what he does if his initials didn’t stand for bullshit. It’s almost too perfect. Of course the man who writes about the “Bro Scogan Experience,” the first “Intercollegiate World National Chopsticks Championship,” and who allegedly received a cease and desist from the college for breaking and entering (something he wouldn’t be so stupid to record himself doing) would write under those initials. The be B.S. might not just be a tongue in cheek acknowledgement: it might well be his deepest insecurity. The question is then one reminiscent of the chicken and the egg. What came first? The antics, or the signature? Did Mr. Scott realize the potential of his name and begin playing into it, or was he always like this, sufferer of nominal determinism, the years passing and proving all too apparent how accurate his initials are? The answer to this question was provided by the man himself (in an off the record interview that he has tried to hide, destroy, and block from being published). In his wayward youth, Mr. Scott was a member of Mr. Breck’s sixth grade algebra class. In this class was also the much smarter, kinder, more likable Bennie Surketz. As a result, he explained with clear rage in his voice, his teacher referred to him as “B.S. 2.” Mr. Scott lambasted Mr. Breck as “the worst person [he] ever met,” his face turning red, his hands shaking, muttering the quadratic equation under his breath. Not only did the title come first, it’s a name which represents all of Bennett’s deepest insecurities. To have to bear such worthless initials and be reminded that you are only secondary in such worthlessness!? No wonder Mr. Scott resorts to cheap absurdist comedy and video podcasting. What respectable outlet could be left for a man with so little faith in his abilities that he signs every work with the very moniker that has blighted and shadowed him since childhood? Truly, he should be pitied, or at the very least given a low-level writing job at GQ. Every article in the Gadfly, every YouTube video, each and every one is a desperate cry for help. Each inked B.S. represents the burning soul of a tortured man (just factor the damn equation Bennett!), a man searching for answers in the mysteries of his little world, leaving no cryptic stone unturned or cellar un-rummaged through, searching for the way to overcome his own feelings of inadequacy. Pushed aside even in his weakness, he now presents every sign of narcissism and “pick-me” syndromes, left in the most absurd of fights: he tears at himself in search of the angst to prove that he too is a starving artist. To be B.S, Mr. Scott needs to do what he does, but to do what he does, Mr. Scott must truly be B.S. —A.M. (Assuredly Magnificent, not Ass Magnet) Pensée of the Week If religion is the opium of the masses, then revolution is the crack cocaine of the masses. Page 2 About the St. John’s Collegian The St. John’s Collegian is the weekly newspaper of St. John’s College Annapolis. We work to bring quick and timely coverage of important events going on, to help develop a more informed student body. If you’re searching for more in-depth investigations and reporting, as well as essays, art and culture, check out the Gadfly, our affiliated publication, which is published once every three weeks. Want to submit an article? We always need more writers, whether for opinion or reporting! Submissions for news articles should be between 400-600 words, while opinion should be kept short at 350 words. Just email eanicholskaufman@sjc.edu with your article, and we will work to get it in print! Longer form articles and more indepth exploration of ideas should go to the Gadfly, which accepts submissions at lbriner@sjc.edu. Contributors for this issue: El’ad Nichols-Kaufman, Editor Andy Manne The Worms � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource <em>The St. John's Collegian</em> Description An account of the resource A student newspaper of St. John's College. <em>The St. John's Collegian</em> began publication in 2023 and is affiliated with <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/collections/show/16"><em>The Gadfly</em></a>. <br /><br />Published weekly on Thursday, with the exception of weeks <em>The Gadfly </em>is published. <br /><br />Earlier publications with the title <em>The Collegian </em>and <em>The St. John's Collegian </em>are available in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/collections/show/26"><em>The Collegian Collection</em></a>.<br /><br />Click on Items in <a href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=69&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">The St. John's Collegian Collection</a> to view and sort all items in the collection. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, Md. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SJCCollegian Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data pdf Page numeration Number of pages in the original item. 2 pages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource St. John's Collegian, December 7, 2023 Description An account of the resource Volume 1, issue 9 of the St. John's Collegian, published December 7, 2023. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.) Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023-12-07 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College holds the rights to this publication. Type The nature or genre of the resource text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Subject The topic of the resource St. John's College (Annapolis, Md.)--Periodicals Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context SJCCollegian_vol1_issue9_2023-12-07 Student publication The Collegian The Gadfly https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/9015330832e8d67aa65f26afc82cee15.mp3 4f0325be5b889c1623f2e5be8e5249f5 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College. During the Fall and Spring semesters, lectures are given on Friday nights. Items include audio and video recordings and typescripts.<br /><br />For more information, and a schedule of upcoming lectures, please visit the <strong><a href="http://www.sjc.edu/programs-and-events/annapolis/formal-lecture-series/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">St. John's College website</a></strong>.  <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Formal Lecture Series" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=5&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection.<br /><br />A growing number of lecture recordings are also available on the St. John's College (Annapolis) Lectures podcast. Visit <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/st-johns-college-annapolis-lectures/id1695157772">Apple Podcasts</a> or <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6GDsIRqC8SWZ28AY72BsYM?si=f2ecfa9e247a456f" title="Spotify">Spotify</a> to listen and subscribe. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context formallectureseriesannapolis Sound A resource primarily intended to be heard. Examples include a music playback file format, an audio compact disc, and recorded speech or sounds. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data audiocassette Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 01:09:39 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Hegel's <em>Phenomenology of Spirit</em> and the Great Tradition Description An account of the resource Audio recording of a lecture delivered on October 15, 2004, by Henry Higuera as part of the Formal Lecture Series. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Higuera, Henry, 1954- Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2004-10-15 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College has been given permission to make this item available online. Type The nature or genre of the resource sound Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource mp3 Subject The topic of the resource Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 1770-1831. Phänomenologie des Geistes Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context LEC_Higuera_Henry_2004-10-15_ac Friday night lecture Tutors https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/sjcdigitalarchives/original/d51774e56db52a6741f3349cbec6061f.mp3 e35eddd5e905b19402b69708a47f80c4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Items in this collection are part of a series of lectures given every year at St. John's College. During the Fall and Spring semesters, lectures are given on Friday nights. Items include audio and video recordings and typescripts.<br /><br />For more information, and a schedule of upcoming lectures, please visit the <strong><a href="http://www.sjc.edu/programs-and-events/annapolis/formal-lecture-series/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">St. John's College website</a></strong>.  <br /><br />Click on <strong><a title="Formal Lecture Series" href="https://digitalarchives.sjc.edu/items/browse?collection=5&amp;sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CDate&amp;sort_dir=d">Items in the St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Collection</a></strong> to view and sort all items in the collection.<br /><br />A growing number of lecture recordings are also available on the St. John's College (Annapolis) Lectures podcast. Visit <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/st-johns-college-annapolis-lectures/id1695157772">Apple Podcasts</a> or <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6GDsIRqC8SWZ28AY72BsYM?si=f2ecfa9e247a456f" title="Spotify">Spotify</a> to listen and subscribe. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource St. John's College Greenfield Library Title A name given to the resource St. John's College Formal Lecture Series—Annapolis Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context formallectureseriesannapolis Sound A resource primarily intended to be heard. Examples include a music playback file format, an audio compact disc, and recorded speech or sounds. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data audiocassette Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 00:52:34 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Song and Dance and Faith and Prayer: The Case of J. S. Bach's Magnificat Description An account of the resource Audio recording of a lecture delivered on February 9, 1996 by Beate Ruhm von Oppen as part of the Formal Lecture Series. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ruhm von Oppen, Beate Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available St. John's College Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Annapolis, MD Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996-02-09 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource St. John's College has been given permission to make this item available online. Type The nature or genre of the resource sound Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource mp3 Subject The topic of the resource Bach, Johann Sebastian, 1685-1750 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context LEC_Ruhm_von_Oppen_Beate_1996-02-09_ac Friday night lecture Tutors